How Military Technology Has and Continues Shaping the World - Literature review Example

How Military Technology has and continues Shaping the World The current global society, as we know and understand it, hasbeen dynamic in terms of human evolution and environmental transformation. This has been as a result of different contexts, which have and continue shaping the international arena, to the present day. War and warfare have a long historical background, dating to the advent of human civilization as we know it. From the early traditional societies, with their stilt stone and bone weaponry; to the advent of the spear, arrows and axes, weapons have indeed evolved. This evolution has fundamentally been influenced by human development, especially in terms of scientific and technological advancement (Boot 43). Of primary importance, has been the discovery and technique of converting iron ore into iron, further propelling technological advancements in terms of hardware. However, the European Industrial Revolution is important to the great dynamism that has been experienced in terms of military advancement (Boot 45). Through advances in technology, prevailing military technologies have, do and will continue evolving; in terms of speed/velocity, accuracy, impacts and effects, as well as the desired results intended. This scenario is best represented in the contemporary era, where airplanes are faster and more efficient, weaponry is laser-guided and the crème de la crème of them all; the advent of unmanned, bomb-carrying vehicles, also known as drones (49). Such technologies have been utilized successfully; abate at the expense of enormous human costs, environmental degradation and great economic impacts. In terms of war and warfare, from the invasions by Vikings, to the Crusades and eventual Hundred Year’s War, Europe became the battleground on which such technologies were best utilized. In such contexts, warfare was an essential agent of change, which continues being experienced up to the contemporary arena (Boot 53). The paper’s aim is to provide an analysis of how military technology shaped the world; in terms of geo-political influence, socio-economic impacts, and ethno-cultural relations; to some extent, also influencing religious contexts. The first will be a general historical analysis of warfare, and the place of technology. This will be followed by varying analysis of what influences, impacts and effects necessitated; and were in turn influenced/ shaped by warfare. The place of both scientific and technological advancement will also be discussed. This will be through showcasing how variations in terms of advancement and technological know-how influenced and continue impacting upon a given stakeholder’s success. Finally, will be a discussion of the private-sector role of military technology and equipment, and then a conclusion. Historical analysis: Warfare and Military Technology War, as some pundits would say, is a necessary aspect of human interaction and co-existence. From historical analysis, one is able to discover the varying reasons why individuals decided on, and subsequently carried out warfare, within various contexts. Europe, as the then dominant international arena in the historical past, provides evidence of the aforementioned notion, having been consumed in different wars (70). In addition, are other arenas such as the Crusader States, the Byzantine Empire, and the Ottoman Empire amongst others. Warfare did vary, influenced by the actors on both sides of the fence, ranging from skirmishes, to civil (intra-state) conflict, inter-state conflict, and unfortunately into global conflicts, as exemplified by the two world wars of the 20th century. For greater understanding of the nature of war, one ought to also have a general idea of the various elements present (Bousquet 73). Thus, war was not only dependent upon the military technology present, but also on other aspects such as leadership, supply chains, defense and attack strategies, as well as population influences. In terms of technology, focus was on such aspects as warfare tactics (i.e. fortress siege warfare strategies), navigational techniques (on land, the sea and later on in the air) and the types of armor present (75). These, and others not mentioned, are some of the different aspects, which tilted warfare to the favor of one side or the other. This is also critical in understanding why some aspects of war did take a lot of time, as well as both human and monetary costs, so as to successfully complete; or even call for truces. An example would be the 2nd World War, when Allied forces were endeavoring to conquer the German forces, in the great trench battle (Bousquet 79). Military technology: Influences and Effects on Warfare Military technology pertains to various collections of hardware and software, which are essential in their utility in warfare. This include: - different types of equipment ranging from ammunition, artillery, and other ordinances; vehicles, boats, submersibles, airplanes and other instruments of transportation; logistical infrastructure, and communication systems present. Comprehensively, military technology comprises all forms of technology, which being distinctly military in context, are hence utilized under very special circumstances (73). It is important to note that, it is its impractical utility in civilian application, in addition to having no legal backing, which makes military technology dangerous. Thus, it is the preserve of only the military, and to some extent, the security agencies present within various nation-states. Both scientists and engineers amongst other specialists, have been fundamental to the creation and development of various forms of military technologies and weapons, amongst other structural applications (75). The primary objective, has been utility within the armed forces, aimed at enhancing not only group efficiency, but also individual tactical ability and capacity. Newer technologies continue to evolve, majorly aided by the merger between military, scientific, technological and industrial sectors; and especially through military funding. Key to this has been the field of weapons engineering, which enabled the design/ development, manufacture, testing and lifecycle management of various military weapons, equipment and system structures (Van Creveld 79). The wide-ranging knowledge, which is applicable to such creation and engineering, is boosted through the existing traditional disciplines of engineering i.e. mechanical, electrical, electro-optics, material, mechatronics, chemical and aerospace engineering sciences (Bijker 83). To be noted is that there is a substantial amount of military technologies, previously invented for the sole purpose of military utility, which now are utilized in the civilian sphere. Van Creveld states that this is possible with little or no modifications present, as is represented by gun purchase, possession and use. It is however, only possible through legal provisions, as provided in different constitutions i.e. in the U.S. Constitution, the 2nd Amendment provides for the right to bear arms. Transport and logistical support are essential in any given battlefront as has history vividly portrayed, through various warfare scenarios (Van Creveld 80). Military vehicles, which are land and/ or combat transportation, are designed with the main aim of utility within combat case scenarios. These in clued military vehicles, armored fighting machines and tanks, as well as motorcycles, which were greatly utilized especially in the two global wars. The above does exclude rail-based transportation, as this mode of transportation, was not majorly utilized in military service, except maybe en masse transportation and logistical support (84). In addition, has been the vital input of military aviation equipment and machinery, which include aircraft utility, not only in transportation, but also training, border patrol, disaster relief, surveillance, search and rescue missions, surveying and in aerial combat. In current contexts, this is further influenced by the presence of satellite communication, enabling some other aspects of military warfare to be carried out (Van Creveld 87). In the seas, the presence of warships, battle boats and submersibles, further provide proof of Man’s ingenuity; an ability which provides global powers with an advantage over other less industrialized states. Equipment included in such a category include: - submarines, aircraft carriers, and complex sail and masting systems (93). To be noted is that in all forms of equipment, basic utilities are considered i.e. effectiveness, speed, accuracy, control and communication. The enhanced industrialization process, coupled with advanced globalization effects, have further influenced the international arenas as we know of it. More and more nations and industrial corporations are engaging in active economic enterprise, urged forth by the huge market found within the military industrial zone (Van Creveld 98). Therefore, not only is the above equipment constantly produced as old and obsolete types being abandoned, newer and more complex types of equipment and systems are produced. A new era, the age of robotics, has firmly entrenched itself in the military world. This is evident from industrial output and utility, which has had some consideration in military circles. The more industrialized nations, naturally the globe’s elite nations, as it should be noted, are also heavily militarized (Brooks 47). In terms of military robots, these are autonomous mechanical tools, which being remote-controlled, form part of the larger robotically-enhanced structures/ systems essential in military application. These include: - bomb disposal robots, powered exo-skeletons, unmanned ground vehicles, autonomous underwater submersibles and unmanned combat air vehicles (drones). Such essential equipment and mechanics are stored within military fortifications, which essentially are designed with defense in mind, in the case of warfare (50). This may be military barracks, forts and fortifications, some of which are secret/ classified, with the rest being known nationally guarded areas. Above all else, as great military strategists would say, warfare is won or lost, if there is ineffective communication (Brooks 54). Thus, both communication equipment and sensors, are essential in tactical warfare, especially in the detection of enemies, the guidance of weaponry, and the coordination of armed forces movement when in the battle field. Instruments essential in respect to this include: - missile guidance sensor systems, radar, and GPS guidance and triangulation equipment, amongst others (Brooks 58). Military Technology: Influences in Recent and Current History It is only with the advent of the Second World War that the dominance of technology became evident, especially in the military arena. Of all state-entities, the best examples to showcase the above include: - the USA, Germany, England (UK), France, China, Japan and the two Korean states. A core aspect of all the aforementioned global powers amongst others, is the fact that dominance in technology has been central to the conceptions of doctrine and military power/ capabilities (351). Of influential nature have been America’s – Military Industrial Complex – a conglomerate of various industries, which engage in the research/study, design, development and production/ assembly of various equipment and machinery (John 353). An example would be the Sherman tank’s main ‘technological advantage being in terms of production capacity, where the USA was able to produce more than Germany under Hitler’s Nazi regime. In addition, would be the B-29 bomber, whose technological advances i.e. remote-controlled guns and pressurized cabins, made it particularly well suited for the bombing campaign in the Pacific Ocean (John 357). Thus, it was able to carry greater payloads, as well as fly higher in the sky, hence enabling the American forces successfully hit Japan. There were fewer losses as a result of enemy fighter attacks or anti-aircraft fire, as the bases were situated further out, away from the battle front. As history will record, it is the decisive decision by America, of dropping two atomic bombs on the two Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which tilted the war to the Allied Forces’ favor (John 361). Since the U.S. was the only entity in possession of the atomic bomb, as well as the scientific and technological know-how of its development, the above decision was pivotal to the conclusion of the Second World War. By the time America was engaging in the Vietnam War, as Cordesman (1996) it was unrivaled in terms of military technological advancement; with specific focus being in airspace combat. Utilizing the newer version of the B-29, which now had evolved into the B-52, American forces were able to carry out greater campaigns. This was due to its payload carrying capacity of 3 times its predecessor, in addition to also having the capacity to fly twice the overall range; with half the crew needed. In addition, was the critical influence of American fighter aircraft, which then and still do carry the most advanced weapons (Cordesman 23). Thus, as Hannah (2001) alludes, pilots were able to employ various tactical doctrines developed with the aim of maximizing their weaponry advantages. However, it is in the classical aerial dogfights, where critical battles are won, as was exemplified after the introduction of the Phantom F-4E, which having a nose-mounted cannon, enabled American pilots zone in, and subsequently engage their enemies (110). This enabled them achieve the favorable kill-ration that they had enjoyed in the past, during all conflicts since the inception of the airplane in modern combat. This is an advantage which the U.S. continues enjoying, having the best weapons system in the form of the stealth bomber, which essentially is the preferred transport mode of nuclear payloads (116). America continued to exploit its asymmetrical advantages in contemporary warfare, as is showcased in its Operation Desert Storm (1991). Here, a bombing campaign, carried out for 38 days continuously, to be subsequently followed by a 4-day ground campaign, resulted in their successful ouster of Saddam Hussein. In this roughly 2-month campaign, American and coalition forces were able to achieve their military objectives with very minimal loss of life (Hannah 120). Importantly, was not the technology utilized, but rather the strategy or operational doctrine implemented. Accordingly, they utilized what became known as the ‘Air Land Battle’ doctrine, which did emphasize rapid synchronized movements of both air and ground forces. Critical also in this campaign, were the impacts of the Patriot air-defense missiles, which successfully intercepted Iraqi Scud missiles (Hacker 40). The aforementioned, portrays America’s tenacity in terms of warfare, projecting the US government policymakers’; as well as military decision-makers’ continued dependence on accelerated technology, as the best avenue for success. Their operational doctrine has, and continues being reflective of the post-Cold War global arena, where there is need for quick and decisive battle victories, coupled with minimal loss of American life (44). This is best symbolized in the air warfare experienced in Kosovo (1999), the toppling of Afghanistan’s Taliban (2001), and the aforementioned Iraqi ground invasion (2003). Pundits are of the view that in regard to America’s conception, there is the ideal that social conceptions of existing technology and technological advancement, are the driving force behind military innovation. To be noted is that by and large, the technologies which are utilized by the American military, are distinctly not only military in nature, but also American in all aspects (Hacker 47). Military Technology: Other Avenues of Utility While military technology has been primarily utilized in military circles, there are various inventions which have successfully been utilized in the civilian world as Mosser (2010) provides. Examples include firearms, which are even available for civilian use throughout the world. other technologies which have been useful include the aircraft tracking radar, utilized in civilian air traffic control systems and microwave ovens; night vision, which continues being utilized in surveillance and low light photography, and the duct tape, which continues having multiple utility (94). In addition are instruments such as walkie-talkies, which currently are utilized in amongst others, the toy industry, outdoor recreation, and portable radio-communication in businesses, amateur radio, and marine communication (Mosser 96). Also utilized has been the existing ballistic missile technology in space exploration, as well as the launch of global positioning, weather and communication satellites. The jet engine is useful in the contemporary airline industry, with digital photographing equipment being utilized in the creation of cameras. Nuclear technology, abate its great catastrophic implications in the case of accidents, is primarily utilized in nuclear power generation and nuclear medicine utility (98). GPS is currently utilized in personal tracking and navigation, with the internet having varying utility in terms of the World Wide Web, electronic commerce, email, peer-to-peer networking, corporate websites and media sharing amongst other uses. The Swedish Fire steel continues being utilized as a gadget for easily igniting campfires, regardless of the weather present (Mosser 100). In conclusion, not only has military technology been influential in shaping international relations; in terms of geo-political, economic and military influences, but also in contexts of consumer-market approaches. Fundamentally so has been the fact that nations are on the race towards increased militarization, as well as technological advancement. This is not to imply that civilian utility of such technologies is not available, but rather continues being influential in various consumer products, which are technologically-inclined and continue to positively impact on human development. Works cited Bijker, Wiebe E. “How is Technology Made? – That is the Question!,. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 34.1 2010: 70-86. Electronic. Boot, Max. War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Gotham, 2007. Print. Bousquet, Antoine. The Scientific Way of Warfare: Order and Chaos on the Battlefields of Modernity. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009. Print. Brooks, Risa A. and Elizabeth A. Stanley. Creating Military Power: The Sources of Military Effectiveness, eds. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007. Print. Cordesman, Anthony and Abraham R. Wagner. The Lessons of Modern War in the Gulf War (vol. IV). Boulder: Westview Press, 1996. Print. Hacker, Barton and Margaret Vining. American Military Technology: The Life Story of a Technology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. Print. Hannah, Craig C. Striving for Air Superiority: The Tactical Air command in Vietnam. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2001. Print. John, M. Staudenmaier. “Rationality, Agency, Contingency: Recent Trends in the History of Technology.” Reviews in American History, 30 2002: 345-365. Electronic. Mosser, Michael W. “The Promise and the Peril: The Social Construction of American Military Technology.” The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, 2010: 90-104 Van Creveld, Martin. Technology and War: From 2000 B.C. to the Present. New York: The Free Press, 1991. Print. Read More