Chinese Civilizations - Essay Example

Chinese Civilizations How can we learn about ancient China? How is it different from/similar to learning other ancient civilizations? What is the most important point you learned? Why is it important to you? Is there any familiar information? How and why is it familiar to you? The history of ancient China has been in existent for thousands of years long before history was recorded. However, scholars have translated Chinese writing system to help other cultures understand the history of China. Aside from scholarly writing, we can learn about ancient China through world and Asian history books, internet, historians, synthesis of evidence and traditional Chinese records, teachers, and word of mouth. Ancient Chinese civilization is similar to contemporary Mesopotamia and Egypt as they developed around the same time period and based primarily on agriculture. However, Sreedaran noted some key differences among ancient China and its peer civilizations: China was politically-stable and chose government officials for talent and virtue unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia where power and lifestyles were constantly shifting because of attacking neighbors and chose official based on inheritance and invasion; Chinese culture survived far longer than other civilizations and practiced philosophies based on the importance of humans rather than religions and supernatural forces; harmonious families were one of the core elements of Chinese civilization while it was a status issue in Egypt and Mesopotamia (n.p.). Learning ancient Chinese civilization and culture is the most important point that I have learned as it helped me better understand Chinese people, bridged cultural gap, and developed effective communication. Meanwhile, the construction of Grand Canal is very familiar to me as I have read in a history magazine about Chinese architectures and sculptures. 2. What are the central issues of Chinese philosophical teachings and how are these related to the social and economic situation of Warring States China? During the time of Zhou dynasty, the absence of centralized authority has led the states to scheme against one another, form and eventually break alliances, and engage in interstate wars. This particular era in the Zhou dynasty refers to the Warring States Period (403-221 BCE) (Van Norden, 11). In line with the social and economic situation of Warring States China were the Chinese philosophical teachings. Chinese philosophy highly regarded the Confucian ideology in which people are encouraged to live a righteous life. It has relevance to the Warring States Period as philosophers believed that each dynastic leader kept on looking for the “dao” or the “Way.” Conflict arose between dynasties because they have different perceptions of achieving dao or the right way to live one’s life and organize society (Van Norden, 11). Chinese philosophical teachings significantly affect social and economic situation during the Warring States period as Chinese ethical thought illustrated the complex interrelationship between family and politics in this era. In the Confucian ideology, family relationship is highly regarded and importance of loving and respecting family members is also stressed; however, political factors during this period seek to minimize the role of familial relations for the sake of government. Meanwhile, the Warring States period was also the time of heightened inter- and intrastate conflict and where rulers of some powerful states declared themselves as king and most wealthy and powerful families used coercion to be dukes and figureheads. The Chinese philosophical teachings stating that one should rule by virtue was neglected during this era and instead, rulers and ministers usurped the title and authority of king by force and guile. 3. In the Han dynasty, Confucianism was chosen as the state orthodoxy of a large bureaucratic empire. Why were the early Han bureaucrats so attracted to Confucius ideas? How did they use them for their task of building and managing huge empire? How successful were they? Aside from the growth of landed estates, the early Han bureaucrats were so attracted to Confucius ideas because of value placed upon respect of traditions, superiors, and special relationships between rulers and ancestors. Han is strong on ceremony and ritual where “Imperial Confucianism” is adopt by rulers, used to train state officials, followed an imperial cult of ritual observance, and developed notion of humanity as part of nature (Bowman, 9). Imperial Confucianism worked on building and managing the empire through the emperor’s conduct and performance of standard-based ceremony to maintain the harmony of Heaven, Earth and humankind, balance of yin and yang, and emphasis on the special relationship of the ruler and his ancestors. Before, emperors appointed state officials regardless of their competence but because of Confucius’ ideology, emperors chose people for the job based on qualifications and merit. The Han dynasty also improved and established the system of land ruling through morals and ethics and the Confucius ideology emphasized respect to parents and elders. The integration of the Confucius ideology to the Han dynasty was successful in achieving government stability with consolidated and expanded central authority and effective tax collecting system. In fact, Confucianism is credited for making Han ruler Wudi the longest ruler in China’s history for 54 years (Bowman, 10). Despite success of Confucianism and Han dynasty, negative effects such as discrimination among women and total control of parents over their children were inclined in the Confucius teachings. 4. Buddhism originated in India and is based on several concepts that are radically different from indigenous Chinese ideas and values. What are the differences between Buddhist and Chinese values? What do you consider to be the greatest conflict between them? Disparities among Buddhist and Chinese ideas and values can be observed as teachings were not homogenous and frequently incommensurate. Buddhism was a new faith to social and economic groups, particularly to Confucianism and Daoism advocates of China. Confucianism and Daoism were essential philosophies of proper thought and conduct in life and possess only incidental religious beliefs; whereas, Buddhism was a supernatural religion promising an afterlife of eternal bliss for the righteous (Adler and Pouwels, 177). In addition, Buddhism values of all and enlightenment of the soul unlike Chinese Confucianism which respects for the systems of social hierarchy and importance of formal education in morals, arts, and sciences to discover the need or welfare of fellow man. Chinese ideas and values insisted that prolonged solitary meditation is impermissible as all must partake of social life. Chinese philosophical teachings encompassed that human beings are good in nature and preserving heavenly laws and repressing human desire were the ultimate goals for righteous living. Buddhism, on the other hand, believed that human life is miserable and spiritual emancipation is the highest goal to seek. In my personal opinion, the greatest conflict between them lies on priority and how to live a righteous life. Buddhism prioritizes no one but only the spiritual inclination to Buddha and living a righteous life depends on self-discovery and long hours of social meditation. On the other hand, Chinese ideology prioritizes respect for authorities and elderly that gave rise to social hierarchy and believes that living a righteous life requires social participation in order to recognize what would benefit or contribute to the welfare of the people. 5. What are the two most important distinguishing characteristics of the Tang dynasty which caused an unprecedented flourishing of culture? The establishment of the Tang dynasty during the 618-907 CE is considered as the golden age and the most brilliant epochs of China’s history. The two most notable characteristics of Tang dynasty which have led to unprecedented nourishing of culture include the well-field reform and the reform in the military expeditions. The well-field reform or the reallocation of land every few years aimed to give peasant more rights to lands and to break the power of landlords. Early Tang rulers noticed the misery of the peasants and the need to improve their conditions due to unreasonable taxes and rents imposed by landlords; thus, Tang rulers adopted the well-field system from Sui dynasty in which fertile farm land reverted to the imperial government upon death or old age of its peasant cultivator was reassigned to another adult peasant in exchange of reasonable taxes and labor services (Adler and Pouwels, 176). Tang dynasty’s land reform has not only matched the peasants’ needs and resources but has improved the economic lives of the people as well. Tang rulers continued military expeditions of Sui with less military misadventures. They completed the Grand Canal which paved way to centralization and growing of commercial economy. Tang rulers were also successful in purchasing peace from Turkish and Mongolian neighbors and in extending conquests along the Silk Road. It is not only the economic and demographic growth that Tang dynasty has created but the flourishing of culture as contacts from Japanese, Koreans and Tibetans proliferated. An evidence of this intercultural immersion is the rapid conversion of many to Buddhism (Adler and Pouwels, 176). These reforms aimed at achieving peace and just society enriches the culture of Tang dynasty. 6. The Status of women is said to have declined during the Song dynasty. What were the changes in status compared to the previous dynasties? What caused the changes? The revival of the Confucian teachings was often seen as the reason why the status of women has declined during the Song dynasty. From the collapse of the Han dynasty up to the end of the Tang dynasty, Chinese women had enjoyed significant high social status (Chang, 5). It was due to Confucian teachings that footbinding began and strong disapproval to widows remarrying prevailed. During the Song times, fewer women were active in politics and they were less commonly seen on streets, unlike during the Tang dynasty times. However, it was in the Song dynasty times that women secured their rights to property and older women were highly regarded as powerful within their families. After collapse of the Han dynasty, political disunity known as “Six Dynasties” and nomadic influences emerged. These influences consist of changes in women’s status in terms of divorce, remarrying, and public domain activities. During these times, women became active in political and social arenas, apart from the segregation of Confucian ideal. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, women retained their right to Confucian education and classical poetry, the right to inherit father’s property if there were no male offspring, the right of widow women to choose to remarry, the inheritance of horseback riding practice, and freedom of mobility outside home. The revival of the Confucian ideal during the Song dynasty conceptualized women as managers of household expenditures and educators of children at home (Chang, 5). Women were restricted on participating activities outside of home and were expected by their family to get married to contribute towards their family’s financial success. Indeed, changes of women’s role through dynasties differed due to unique social, cultural, and political factors. 7. What kind of life did the Chinese had under the Mongol rule? Was there any improvement? Mongol rulings have made Chinese lives unified and conservative. Kublai Khan has served as the Mongol ruler of China for nearly a hundred years, the longest and the most famous in China’s history. One of the most significant accomplishments of Kublai Khan was the conquest and unification of north and south China since tenth century, which has also made him the first non-Chinese people to unite China (Hansen and Curtis, 410). During the Mongol times, China retained most of their local customs as Kublai Khan and other Mongols showed conservative tendencies towards Chinese cultures. Kublai Khan genuinely adopted a Chinese name for his dynasty (Yuan dynasty), gave comparative freedom to existing religions in China, and showed conservative tendencies to Chinese literatures and imperial heritage. In addition, Kublai Khan was the first to grant special privileges to various religions in China by giving Changchun (Daoism), its followers and clergies, full exemption from taxes and duties demanded by the government (Pletcher,177). Despite preservation of Chinese culture, there are also some improvement and changes made during this time. One of these Changes include the suspension and conversion of the civil service examinations for appointing officials to Mongols’ preferences and pairing of a non-Chinese official to Chinese appointee whereas improvements in economy were made and include reintegration of the China’s economy through strict control and limitation of trade to authorized border markets, flourishing of internal trade by granting private Chinese entrepreneurs of concessions for grain transport overseas, and standardizing currency (Pletcher,177). The Yuan dynasty of the Mongol has been one of the strongest rulings in China until the death of Kublai Khan, which subjected new leaders to gradual decline. 8. How was Modern China, 1900-1949, different from Imperial China? Modern China (1900-1949) is far more different than the Imperial China. During this period, China Boxer Rebellion began, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) won and Japanese invasion, warlord rule, and civil war were succeeded. It was also this time that conservatism from the Imperial China was superseded and modernization was accepted as an ideal by the governments. The early twentieth century marked significant improvement in social, cultural, economic, and political respects. Reforms in the status and education of women, peasantry, and youth were made to address the discrimination they have experienced during the Imperial times due to the Confucian ideology. Monarchy was the form of government of China during the imperial times. With the overthrown of Qing (Manchu) dynasty, the form of government is converted to a republican system and eventually, to communism (Mackerras, 5). Imperial China condemned the use of force to acquire leadership while Modern China is characterized by intense hostility and political revolutions. In addition, obedience to authority and the maintenance of status quo were highly regarded during the imperial times; thus, the citizens have the duty to accept the political situation as it is and challenging the government would mean affronting the natural order of things. Modern China, on the other hand, lost that total obedience to the government as manifested by a number of revolutions aimed towards changes in the politics. Likewise, the Chinese concept of family and social discipline did not seem to vary during the Imperial and Modern China. During the imperial times, individualism or emphasis on people as individuals rather than as part of the society prevailed while totalitarianism or the system which give the state complete power over people dominates Modern China. Works Cited Adler, Philip J. and Pouwels, Randall. World Civilizations, 6th edition. Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2012, pp. 176-177. Bowman, John Stewart. Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000, pp. 9-10. Chang, Doris T. Womens Movements in Twentieth-Century Taiwan. Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 2009, pp. 5. Hansen, Valerie and Curtis, Kenneth. Voyages in the World History. Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010, pp. 410. Mackerras, Colin. China in Transformation, 1900-1949, 2nd edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2008, pp. 5. Pletcher, Kenneth. Understanding China: The History of China, 1st edition. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011, pp. 177. Sreedaran, Manju. “Key Differences Between Ancient China and Its Peer Civilizations.” Yahoo! Contributor Network. 2008. Web. April 19, 2012, from http://voices.yahoo.com/key-differences-between-ancient-china-its-peer-2010682.html?cat=37 Van Norden, Bryan W. Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy. Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2011, pp. 11. Read More