A Political History of Islamic Spain: A Failure of Unity - Research Paper Example

A Political History of Islamic Spain: A Failure of Unity Perhaps the most fascinating and culturally formative periods in Spanish history came with the conquering of the country in the eighth century by Muslims from North Africa. The conquest brought in its wake a flowering of educational and cultural advances some say is unequaled to this day. “... south of the Pyrenees was a land of higher culture, where amid material luxury men enjoyed the delights of music and poetry” (Watt 1). Seeking to expand Islam’s hold on the continent, the political structure under Islamic rule developed into a strange hybrid of Arab and Berber tribes, with Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin comprising the majority. As might be expected, five centuries of Moorish rule saw tribal and class enmities simmer. It was this rivalry that caused fragmentation of the conquered lands into rival provinces that eventually ushered in its downfall. In the end it is the internal and cultural disunity between Arab tribes amongst themselves, and between Arabs and Berbers that weakens the empire and results in its demise at the hands of the northern Christian monarchy. It is helpful to begin with a background of Arab and Berber tensions before the invasion of Spain in order to further understand them and their relationship to the Moorish invasion and conquest of Spain. Following the conquest, al-Andalus, as the Moorish region was called, was divided into five administrative areas roughly corresponding to today’s Andalusia, Galicia, Portugal, Castile, Leon, Aragon, Catalonia and Septimania. (O’Callaghan 142). With Berber Muslim dynasties first on the scene, Arab tribes quickly followed and as quickly became the dominant ruling class. Though the Arabs formed a minority among the mostly Berber invaders they quickly assumed a place of privilege, taking control of the lands and in doing so becoming the quasi-aristocracy destined to eventually take power. It is important to note that Arabs historically had always seen the nomadic Berbers [who did not adopt Islam until later] as a lower cast in North Africa. They had taken the best lands from them by force. History records a revolt of Berbers that was put down by Arab forces as early as 740AD. It is interesting to note that even while these hostilities were occurring Arab forces were simultaneously fighting amongst themselves. (Watt 2) The Arabs, traditionally tribal, never established a stable central government. “Internal divisions within Moorish rule largely explain why the Moors didnt conquer the whole peninsula in those early days” (History of Moorish Spain, Part 1, para. 4).  The closest they came to a centralized government was probably the Umayyad Caliphate—whose leader, the Khalif, was considered the rightful heir to the political authority of Muhammad. Ruling the kingdom from Cordova through the eleventh century, the Caliphate was eventually overthrown by the Berber Almoravids, who themselves were later overthrown in 1174 by the Almohads. This political course indicates the disunity amongst the tribes that would tear at its political stability over the centuries of rule. During the Umayyad Caliphate it is commonly known that while high officials in the government were Muslim, their acceptance of subjects practicing the Christian and Jewish religious traditions was quite noteworthy and the freedom allotted them was gracious. Art, education, science and literature flowered. Political and governmental structure, however, was set up in accordance with Islamic religious traditions. “...the practical administration of such a system, political and social, was founded upon the inculcations of the Korán, which controlled the governor and the governed in all the circumstances of life.” (Coppee 332). Undoubtedly, not all of its subjects were equally dedicated to the practice of strict Islamic rule. While some lived by and accepted the code, others did not. It is easy to see in the following quote how the strict enforcement of Islamic codes might and probably did lead to jealousy and infighting amongst the people. Passages from the Koran highlight religion’s influence on the decision-making of Moorish rulers. “It was by the mercy of Allah that thou wast lenient with them (O Muhammad), for if thou hadst been stern and fierce of heart they would have dispersed from round about thee. So pardon them and ask forgiveness for them and consult with them upon the conduct of affairs” (Encyclopedia of Islam, Al-Imran 3:159). While this all sounds very nice and fair, there is a great degree of discretion in these guidelines and no guarantee that it would be applied fairly and across the political spectrum to all of the groups. Even today we see various branches of Islam with different interpretations of Islamic law fighting amongst themselves for power and control. Part of the political social contract between Islamic rulers and their non-Islamic subjects was an acknowledged and admired recognition of their tradition as “People of the Book.” “Islam’s recognition of its historical predecessors, Christians and Jews [under the Caliphe] were treated with respect by their Muslim rulers in a form of social compact which recognized their right to organize their social affairs independently” (Ibdah and Woods 2). There was, however, administrative discrimination that must certainly have contributed to disunity within the populace that further contributed to the Moor’s demise at the hands of the Christians. “...while other religious freedoms were granted to the dhimmis [non-Muslims], this protection did come at a price, as in return Christians and Jews had to pay a tax – the jizya – which was not levied on Muslims” (Ibdah and Woods 2). The eleventh century political takeover by the Almoravids and their harsh inforcement of strict Islamic rules signaled the beginning of the end of the Empire. This new wave of Islamic fanatics did not sit well with Arabs who over the past century had seen a relaxation of Islamic rules. “The original Moors inhabitants began to find the fanatical rule of the Almoravids to be overbearing and began to revolt” (Spain History: Reconquest Period). Unsupported by the public, the Almoravids saw themselves conquered by an even more fanatical tribe, the Almohades, and by 1031 al-Andalus had degenerated into twenty feuding kingdoms... “...the result of racial rivalry between Hispanic Muslims and immigrant Berbers” (Kamen 25). By 1150 the Moorish Empire further contracted to three areas: Seville, Granada and Cordoba. During that time under the Almoravids a new dedication to culture flourished. But it was not enough to save the empire already politically weakened and divided by constant political instability. Christian armies had already made inroads in certain areas formerly held by the Moors struggling to keep their shrinking empire in tact. Christian armies sensed this vulnerability and were well aware of a population dissatisfied with the harsh Almoravid Islamic rule. Military looses came quickly and sharply. Murcia fell in 1243. Valencia, a Moorish stronghold, fell in 1245, leaving the Moors in control of only Portugal, the Balearic Islands and the small kingdom of Granada awarded them by the Christian King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. (Spanish History: Caliphate and Reconquest Period). Conclusion There is no doubt that while the Arabs certainly successfully dominated a good portion of Spain in the time periods discussed, that dominance was always tenuous. Continual disunity and infighting amongst themselves together with the enforcement of Islamic rules on an eclectic population contributed heavily to its downfall. Difficulties at the beginning should have signaled that further and continued success depended largely on solidarity. Taylor writes, “Aside from the purely Islamic perceptions of the importance of solidarity, history had taught the peoples of the Middle East and North Africa that unity was a protective shield against the ever-present threat of conquest from external areas” (3). Apparently, the lure of controlling Spain took precedence over their natural political instincts. The desire for certain tribes and groups to hold sway was a historical tradition too ingrained to resist. This was odd, since the successful and complete conquest of Spain would have undoubtedly led to further conquests of other countries on the continent. The spread of Islam would have been assured. Yet,as Watt found, “Much of the tension which is found among the Arabs is ascribed, in the sources, to the rivalry between tribes and groups of tribes. Undoubtedly...tribal rivalry did exist and was a factor to be taken account of in politics” (26). Against this and other “powerful divisive forces” (Taylor 2-3), extreme unity was necessary. It’s absence, like a perfect political storm, ensured its ultimate downfall. Works Cited Coppee, Henry. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors. Volume: 2. Boston: Little, Brown, 1881. History of Moorish Spain, Part 1. (2010). Retrieved May 2, 2010 from: http://www.spanish-fiestas.com/andalucia/history-moorish-spain.htm Ibdah, Hazar and Wood, Lawrence. “Learning from al-Andalus Lessons for Contemporary Interreligious Interaction.” Interreligious Insight, Issue July, 2004. Retrieved May 2, 2010 from: http://www.interreligiousinsight.org/July2004/July04IdbahWoods.pdf Kamen, Henry. A Concise History of Spain. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1973. Massive Online Encyclopedia of Islam. http://www.bible.ca/islam/dictionary/index.html O’Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Spain. New York: Cornell University Press, 1983. Spain History: Moor Period, Part I, II; Reconquest Period. Retrieved May 2, 2010 from: http://www.spain-madrid.com/general/history/d-moor-period-1.htm Taylor, Alan R. The Arab Balance of Power. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1982. Watt, W. Montgomery. A History of Islamic Spain. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1965. www.questia.com. Read More