History of Western Civilization - Assignment Example

History Final Exam Question Discuss the causes of the Protestant Reformation. Which do you feel are most important? Why? The Protestant Reformation took place in earnest during the 1500s (Greer and Lewis 2004). It was characterized by a movement within the Catholic Church designed to eliminate the abuses taking place within the church and to restore customs, practices and beliefs that were more closely aligned with the New Testament concepts of Catholicism. No one single event caused the Reformation. It was a combination of religious, political and social factors working in tandem. The most important among these causes would be the social factors that emanated from the Renaissance and produced calls for reform on both a social and personal level. The 16th century was a period of change and reformation and those changes contributed to the changes occurring within the church. The Renaissance during this period gave way to the prevalence of humanists and artists. With arts and literature penetrating society, the ideals of self-fulfillment, dignity and individualism spread among this new and somewhat enlightened society. Ultimately discontent with the Church prevailed as more and more Christians began to feel alienated by the Church’s focus on rituals and perceptions grew that this kind of theological practice was far too impersonal. The ritualistic nature of the holy sacrament began to lose its meaning as it repetition and application en mass was far too impersonal to sustain deep, personal meaning (Greer and Lewis 2004). On another level trust in Church officials took a severe hit. The papacy in particular with its acquisition of wealth began to take on the characteristics of royalty and this not only caused a disconnect between church officials and the congregation, but also became the catalyst for abusive powers within the Church. Many members of the clergy became corrupt and the result was, the congregation began to lose faith in the authenticity of the sermon and the service in general(Greer and Lewis 2004) . Martin Luther emerged as a domineering figure during this period, and his influence was a manifestation of the causes of the Protestant Reformation. Luther attacked the Church’s doctrines, emphasizing that the sale of indulgences was not the way to obtain salvation. He advocated for predestination, arguing that faith rather than form would achieve salvation for the individual, although there were no guarantees since it was all up to God. In a very short period of time, many would turn away from the Church and subscribe to Luther’s tenets (Greer and Lewis 2004). The fact that many would turn away from the Church and subscribe to Luther’s ideology is evidence of the root social causes that fueled and drove the Protestant Reformation. For the wealthy, following Luther meant that they could register their dissatisfaction with the Church and at the same time they could belong to a faith and hold onto their wealth. For the poor, Luther’s ideology offered a means by which they could achieve personal dignity as well as respect. Germany in particular subscribed to Lutheranism as a way of attacking the Holy Roman Empire (Greer and Lewis 2004). Essentially, Luther fed into the prevailing discontent that came about during the 16th century. This discontent emanated from the social and cultural changes taking place within society and was juxtaposed against the corruption and abuses among the Church’s officials. The social changes during the Renaissance brought with it a growing awareness of the utility of personal salvation. The Church reached out to the congregation as a group and Lutheranism offered an alternative to the Church and offered individualism by offering faith as the sound basis of salvation. In this regard, all of these influences and changes brought on by Luther and steering the Protestant Reformation emanated from the climate created by the Renaissance. The Church was no longer dealing with a complacent and disconnected congregation, but a congregation driven by heightened awareness of the impersonal and corrupt nature of the Church, seeking an alternative route to personal salvation. Question 2. The Renaissance has been called the "birth of modernity." Why? The Renaissance has been called the ‘birth of modernity’ because it brought about changes that would put an end to the communal and collectivity that characterized the Medieval Ages. The Renaissance focused attention on humanism and individualism promoting what was considered a “modern individualist spirit” (Parker and Bentley 2007, 1). The individualism spawned by the Renaissance also gave way to the Protestant Reformation which in turn ended the “papal tyranny of the Middle Ages” and introduced “the modern principle of liberty and conscience” (Parker and Bentley 2007, 1). It was the combined effect of the Reformation and the Renaissance that essentially gave way to the term modernity. During this period Europe transformed from engaging in explorations to engaging in colonization and this alone would have been enough to earn the Renaissance and the Reformation the combined credit for giving birth to modernization. The emerging tenets were “rationalism, capitalism and individualism” (Parker and Bentley 2007, 2). This self-centric society would give way to social, religious, economic and cultural changes that would shape much of Europe’s economic and social future. As Parker and Bentley (2007) claim: Thus, Renaissance and Reformation gave birth to a modern individualist spirit that was central to the triumph of Western civilization (2). The Renaissance with its attention to the arts and literature engendered thinking and reflection which oddly influenced an appreciation for the past while also breeding change (Roney 1996, 14). For example, Luther looked at past and current Catholic practices and drawing on history formulated a theology and philosophy that minimized the role of the Catholic church in social and political life. Drawing on historical documents and the past, Luther encouraged Christians to steer away from looking to the institution of the Church and to appeal to their individual conscience. He forced the individual to reconnect with the Christian of the past and to find their own personal connection with God rather than to seek connection through the institution of the Church (Roney 1996, 15). Essentially, the Renaissance is viewed as the birth of birth of modernity because it gave way to a different way of thinking. The result was new social discourse, revised ways of conduct with greater and more determined investment in the value of individualism and the individual’s relationship to the life around him. What emerged was a new trend in consciousness. Individuals began questioning order and challenging established religious and social dictates. What developed was an intellectual and introspective way of looking at society and norms. In this regard, the birth of modernity can be properly characterized as the birth of thought and the birth of reasoning. The individual was beginning to become free of the dictates of servitude both in the Church and in the economic structure of society. This Renaissance theme is the primary reason for regarding the Renaissance as the birth of modernity. There was a gradual and definite decline in scholastic intellect and a greater emphasis on nature and resort to historical deductions. More and more travel took place and there was an increasing emphasis on individual growth rather than institutional growth. In short the Renaissance gave birth to new relationships between state and the individual with the latter assuming more significance than previously. It is therefore the rise of the individual that primarily earned the Renaissance the reputation of giving birth to modernity. Question 3: The Early Middle Ages are often referred to as the "Dark Ages." Why? Was there any learning during this period? The Early Middle Ages is often referred to as the Dark Ages. This period commences with the reign of Constantine in A.D. 312 and covers the period to the end of the 11th century (Cahill 2006, 63). This period was not as dark as its description would suggest. During this period there was learning manifested by the eventual development of commercial relationships, scholarship and the increase in city sizes which came at the end of the Dark Ages. Some insight into the developments during this period will shed some light on why the Early Middle Ages earned the tag, the Dark Ages. In 476 A.D. the Roman Empire fell with the result that west Europe existed in a state of disorder and lawlessness. In smaller regions, tribal chiefs and/or kings seized control and a greater part of the population were essentially illiterate. Essentially, there had been a minimization of literature and arts. The cumulative impact of each of these factors following the fall of the Roman Empire would earn the Early Middle Ages the title the Dark Ages (Hoyt 1967). The Dark Ages saw the introduction of the feudal system which was the answer for creating social order and control. This was a hierarchal system which was characterized by class marginalization. The basis for the feudal system was predicated on the belief that each citizen could be relegated to a specific place in societal structures conflict would be minimized if not eliminated altogether. At the top of the feudal ladder were the king, the lords, and knights. Peasants comprising approximately 90 percent of the population occupied the last rung of the ladder. Lords were accountable to the king and occupied the land upon which the peasants worked in exchange for security in the event of an invasion (Hoyt 1967). Despite the division of the classes during the Early Middle Ages, everyone subscribed to the tenets of the Christian Church. Outside the Roman Empire however, Islam ruled the daily lives of those between the Far East and Europe. However, there was learning during this period, despite its social setbacks. China for instance lead the world in cultural and scientific development. Much of China’s scientific and cultural progress would reach Asia and the arts would grow in that region (Hoyt 1967). Learning was also evident in North America. For instance towns were being constructed and in Mexico the Toltec civilization was emerging. In South America, Empires such as the Huari Empire were developing and were marked by their entirely independent structures. Although contact between the world’s emerging civilizations were restricted and very few countries traded with each other, there was growing evidence that the Early Middle Ages was not entirely the Dark Ages. For instance, Islam was beginning to spread to North Africa by virtue of a combination of trade and conquest (Hoyt 1967). Evidence of learning in Europe was emerging during the Early Middle Ages. However there were setbacks as this region was preoccupied with the focus on finding its bearings. The Byzantine Empire stood as a symbol of stability for Christianity. In Spain, development and learning came as a result of the Islamic invasion and the setting up of a progressive culture that endured for seven centuries (Hoyt 1967). North Europe saw the emergence of the Carolingians who gave birth to the first European Empire and this would diminish with the death of King Charlemagne in the 800s. In the remaining parts of Europe nation states were gradually beginning to take shape under the auspices of the Catholic Church of Rome. The threat of invasion from the Magars and Vikings and with the knowledge of the Islamic invasion of Spain, the Roman Empire began to develop at a more rapid pace(Hoyt 1967) . By the 1100s a number of European nation states began to emerge with greater stability and strength and showed signs of growing economic development. In the meantime, churches were constructed, universities opened and towns began to emerge with determined growth and significance. A number of overseas conquest began to occur characterized by conquests. When all is said and done, the Early Middle Ages, while referred to as the Dark Ages, was not entirely a period of chaos and disorder (Hoyt 1967). Civilization learned from this chaos and was able to establish order and as a result grew socially, culturally, politically and economically. Although the Early Middle Ages was a setback for growth and development and earned its title the Dark Ages, it is not entirely reflective of the learning that took place during this period. Out of the barbarism and decadence that followed the fall of the Roman Empire, European civilizations learned to establish order and to spread beyond its borders. They introduced stability and strength and gave birth to an established order that paved the way for future development and advancement. Bibliography Cahill, T. (2006) Mysteries of the Middle Ages: And the Beginning of the Modern World. Random House Inc. Greer, T. and Lewis, G. (2004) A Brief History of the Western World, Volume 1: To 1715. Wadsworth Publishing. Hoyt, R. (1967) Life and Though in the Early Middle Ages, Part 118. University of Minnesota Press. Parker, C. and Bentley, J. (2007) Between the Middle Ages and Modernity. Rowman and Littlefield. Roney, J. (1996) The Inside of History. Greenwood Publishing. Read More