Two Traditional Chinese History - Literature review Example

Insert Part A: Question # 2 The China’s Han Dynasty reigned over the society between 202 BC and 220 AD. It was the second royal dynasty of China, succeeding the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). The dynasty was split into two: the era of Former Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and that of the Later Han (25–220 AD). The Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of Wang Mang broke the continued existence of the dynasty, though temporarily. Chang’an was the seat of power of the Western Han, while the Eastern side had Luoyang as its capital (Shu-hui 121). The emperor built a strong central government by utilizing his position as the head of government to enact written laws which were aimed at consolidating his hold on power. As the top-most military commander of the army he used the military to flaunt his power and force his policies across the society. The end result was diminished power of the local governments and a strengthened centralized authority. As soon as the dynasty came to power, semi-autonomous kings at the local level threatened the authority of the central government under the emperor (Shu-hui 121). But in response, the emperor and the central authorities substantially weakened the influence of the regional administrators by directing the imperial court to implement reforms. Such actions were in response to serious challenges to the central authority by regionally-instigated movements such as the Rebellion of the Seven States. The emperor was the chief appointing officer; all government employees with at least 600 heaps of grain in pay were appointed by him with the assistance of the advisors, who assessed the qualification of each candidate (Shu-hui 122). The empress dowager served as the emperors real or figurative mother, and was practically more influential than the holder of the throne. By virtue of her ability to override the emperor’s decisions, power was technically held by the two at the expense of regional administrations. The emperor could occasionally delegate his executive powers to a member of the central government, especially when some criminals needed to be executed extra-judicially but the emperor was ill-prepared to carry the baggage. According to Shu-hui, Han managed to centralize power for exercising by the top-most members of the bureaucracy, who were charged with executing out advisory opinion, censorial duties, policymaking, and judicial functions in administering the kingdom (152). The top bureaucrats comprised of cabinet ministers known by the title Excellency, leaders of huge specialized departments called the Nine Ministers, and a number of metropolitan officers drawn from within the capital. The emperor strengthened the central authority by ordering distinguished salaries to members of the bureaucracy, members and aides of the royal family, harem concubines, and soldiers who helped to keep the central authority in place. Lastly, despite the failure of the central government to control the sale of salt, metals, and alcoholic drinks, which led to a reversion of the industries to private management, the government managed to centralize the issuing of currency through the imperial mint (Shu-hui 141). In a nutshell, the Han Dynasty centralized social, political and economic sectors of the society in order to have a better grip on power, considering that local administrations threatened the central authority when the Dynasty assumed power. The Han Dynasty was keen on stamping his authority to repress the civilian populations, and religious dissent by use of military force, which eventually led to its collapse. Part B: Question # 2 Confucianism is a school of thought that was derived from the philosophies of the wise Confucius (551 - 479 B.C.). The philosophies were contained in the Analects of Confucius. First, Confucianism is an arrangement premised upon ethical, political, social, and quasi-spiritual philosophy, whose influence was extended beyond China to other Asian countries such as Korea and Japan. The primary Confucian ideologies encompass ren (humanity) zhengming (heavenly), zhong (devotion), xiao (familial virtue), and li (ceremony). Confucianism is advantageous because it occasioned the golden principle, which is essentially based on handling others as one would like to be handled (Ming-Tak 38). In addition, the idea of Yin and Yang, which are two contradicting forces were transformed under Confucianism into a concept of tolerance. Still, the concept of meritocracy, which generally allows only the most qualified to take up positions in society, is a Confucian concept that triggers efficiency in society. Although, Confucianism blends various philosophies and thus creates religious harmony in society, its primary disadvantage lies in the consensus itself; the philosophy threatens to obliterate distinct religious philosophies by forging a compromise line of thought. In addition, Confucianism impedes genuine philosophical change by tampering progress with the need for unity of thought and harmony (Ming-Tak 39). Second, Taoism or Daoism is a school of thought which eventually grew into a religious organization. Tao literally implies path, although in metaphysics, it is usually used in reference to the natural power of the universe. The primary elements of Dao are sympathy, moderation, and modesty. Taoist philosophy is advantageous because it limits conflicts by virtue of wu Wei (non-action) and by the power of softness. In addition the value of humanism and emptiness in Tao are important to forging tolerance of diverse opinion in society. Nonetheless, emptiness and the power of softness create a system where people lack any perpetual principles about life with which they can be judged. In addition, Taoism is disadvantageous because it is primarily driven by the need to remain non-vocal with one’s opinion. As such, the philosophy resembles Confucianism in the sense that it impedes development through critical thoughts. Lastly, legalism is a progressive political philosophy, whose primary agenda is to enact clear unwavering laws, which are complete with retributive justice for the law breakers. Through its primary principle of jurisprudence, legalism is advantageous because the ruler would govern his people based on universal Fa (laws), which treat people equally across board. The doctrine of Shu (tactic), limits haphazard responses by the ruler to issues and events in society based on his perceptions, while Shi (legitimacy) seeks to advance moral leadership based on the law (Ming-Tak 41). Regardless, legalism is disadvantageous as it can be turned into a totalitarian system. An emperor can use the laws against his opponents. In addition, it is natural that legalism favors the political elite, who then may use the existing legal structures to discriminate against hapless members of the society. In addition, unlike the philosophies advocating compromise, the legalist system is too inflexible to accommodate divergent views. As such, individuals whose interests are not taken care of under the legal system may develop a feeling that they are unfairly targeted by the establishment, while the ruling elite would praise the system. Works Cited Ming-Tak Hue. The Influence of Classic Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism on Classroom Discipline in Hong Kong Junior Secondary Schools. Pastoral Care in Education, 25.2 (2007): 38-45. Shu-hui, Wu. On Shiji 22, Table Ten: A Year-by-Year Table of Generals, Chancellors, and Prominent Officials since the Founding of the Han Dynasty. Journal of Chinese Studies, 59.1 (2014): 121-164. Read More