Ottoman Westernization and Social Change - Case Study Example

The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire lasted for six centuries from the year 1299 to 1923. It was a Turkish – Muslim state that enjoyed the distinction of being one of the longest lasting and largest empires. It was also one of the greatest civilizations of the modern period. At its zenith, this empire was spread over 22 million square kilometers. It had included the Middle East, Anatolia, parts of East and North Africa, and South – Eastern Europe[Azm07]. The crumbling Byzantine Empire provided Osman I with the opportunity to emerge as an Islamic warrior. This was appreciated by the wandering ghazis or warriors for the faith, in Anatolia, which is located in the present day Turkey[Azm07]. The Turks conquered the Byzantine city Bilecik in the year 1299. Subsequently, several other cities, villages and forts in Byzantium were conquered by these warriors. These developments took place, in the earlier years of the 1300s. In addition, several of the Turkish principalities and tribes were also annexed[Par08]. As such, the origin of the Ottoman dates back to the year 1299, when it evolved from a frontier principality of Anatolia. In the years that followed, it emerged as an important empire of the world. Its territory extended from Eastern Europe and the Arabian Peninsula to North Africa, in the sixteenth century. Thereafter, it underwent a gradual decline and was extinguished in the year 1922[Goc96]. This was due to the formation of Turkey on its central lands. The merging of western influences with the extant social structure resulted in a divided bourgeois. This brought about fragmentation of its bureaucratic and commercial classes, which in turn resulted in the decline of the Ottoman Empire[Goc96].Kosovo was under the control of Serbia for different spells of varying duration, until a final defeat in the year 1455. Thereafter, both these nations became Turkish allies and part of the Ottoman Empire[Wha13]. Subsequently, Bayezid II became the Ottoman Sultan in the year 1481. He continued in his father’s footsteps, by promoting both eastern and western culture. This was in distinct contradiction to the practices of the other Sultans. In addition, Bayezid II spared no pains in his efforts to have a smooth political culture in the nation. This earned him the well – deserved sobriquet of the Just[Bay13]. The empire of the Seljuk Turks was undergoing a systematic breakdown. The outcome was the emergence of several Turkish states in Asia Minor. The Ottoman state had its humble beginnings in this development. However, the Ottoman Turks commenced to assimilate the other states. By the time of the reign of Muhammad II, which lasted from 1451 – 1481, all the Turkish dynasties had been subsumed by the Ottoman Turks. The initial expansion of the Ottoman Empire was under the rule of Osman I, Orkhan, Murad I, and Beyazid I. This expansion was to the detriment of the Byzantine Empire, Bulgaria, and Serbia[Ott08]. In the year 1326 Bursa was conquered and in the year 1361 Adrianople was defeated and absorbed by the Ottomans[Chr13]. These cities were successively the capital of the empire. After the Ottoman victories of Kosovo Field in the year 1389 and Nikopol in the year 1396, vast areas of the Balkan Peninsula came under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire[Ott08]. It was only at this stage that Europe realized the imminent danger posed by this empire. Constantinople was besieged by the Ottomans, and this was in place till Timur defeated and captured Beyazid in the year 1402. This was however a temporary reprieve, as the Ottomans quickly rallied and once again established their stranglehold on the area[Ott08]. After conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II concentrated his energies on Anatolia. As such, he attempted to forge a single political entity by annexing the Greek Empire of Trebizond and the Beylik Turkish states, and by joining forces with the Crimean Golden Horde. The Beyliks of Anatolia had initially been united by Sultan Bayezid I. This was a half – century prior to the efforts of Mehmed II[Sar12]. All the same, after the Battle of Ankara in 1402, this unification had been destroyed. The credit for restoring the power of the Ottoman Empire on the other Turkish states, undeniably goes to Mehmed II. As a consequence of these conquests, Mehmed II was able to penetrate further into Europe[Sar12]. Moreover, the military excursions by the Ottomans into Bosnia and Greece caused considerable apprehension among the Venetians. This was with regard to the future of its outposts along the Adriatic and Aegean coasts. As a consequence, Venice commenced hostilities with the express objective of pushing back the Ottoman advances. In the year 1463, Venice conquered a large are of the Morea, and this was complemented by the seizure of Bosnia by its Hungarian allies. However, these victories were reversed by Ottoman counteroffensives in the year 1464[Def01]. Thereafter, Mehmed commenced the occupation of parts of Albania, between the years 1466 to 1468[New82]. Afterwards, in July 1470, he occupied the island of Negroponte, which was the chief naval base in the Aegean of the Venetians. In order to oppose these unwelcome developments, Uzun Hasan, the leader of the Aq – Qoyunlu Turkoman state, which was located in Tabriz, combined forces with the Venetians and proceeded towards central Anatolia with a large army. The Ottomans defeated this army in a thorough manner, on 11 August 1473[Def01]. In the period 1477 to 1478, the Ottoman Empire increased its area of control and subjugated almost the entire Albania and took control over southern Montenegro. This development outflanked the Venetians who were now forced to come to a settlement with the Ottomans. On 25 January 1479 a peace treaty that recognized Ottoman rule in Albania was signed. It also accepted the Ottoman conquest of the Aegean Islands. In return, the Ottoman Empire restored the commercial privileges of Venice, and demanded a 10,000 ducats annual tribute, which Venice accepted[Def01]. In May 1481, Mehmed the Conqueror passed away. This resulted in a fight for the throne between Bayezid and Cem, who were his sons. Bayezid became the Ottoman sultan and sent his envoys to the French kings, with an offer to assist Charles VIII against the latter’s foes. This offer was rejected by the French monarch. However, in the sixteenth century, François I entered into an alliance with Süleyman and asked the latter for help in dealing with his enemies. The death of Mehmed was also the precursor for the fifteenth century encounter between the French and the Ottomans[Iso11]. As such, these contacts of the fifteenth century, set the precedent for the sixteenth century diplomatic relations between François I and Süleyman. Cem was decisively defeated by Bayezid, and he sought refuge with the Mamluks. Subsequently, Cem fled to the Order of the Knights of St. John of Rhodes. In July 1482 Cem set sail for Rhodes. He died in the year 1495, and till that time, he was exploited in diplomatic maneuverings related to Italian power struggles and crusade plans. The Knights of St. John had Cem shipped to France as their prisoner[Iso11]. Consequently, Cem remained a prisoner till such time as the pope consented to make a cardinal of the grandmaster of the knights. Thereafter, Cem was transported to Rome in the year 1489, as the captive of the pope. In the year 1495, Charles VIII of France conquered Italy and took possession of Cem, while on his way to Naples. After reaching Naples, Cem died, and at that time he was in the custody of the army of Charles VIII[Iso11]. Sultan Selim III commenced certain imperial reforms in the earlier decades of the nineteenth century, which were once again taken up by Sultan Mahmud II. These reforms were aimed at reducing provincial autonomy and promoting modernization and political centralization. This was to be achieved by means of administrative, fiscal and military reforms that were founded on the Western systems. However, the intervention of the European powers in the independence movement in Greece, brought to the fore the question, as to who would exploit the collapse of the Ottoman Empire[Cha10].The Ottoman troops were decisively defeated by Egyptian forces in the year 1832. This was during the Battle of Konya[Thi12]. Later, the first of the Christian missionaries to visit the Ottoman, concentrated their efforts on converting the local Jews to Christianity. In the initial stages, there was no attempt to convert the Muslims to Christianity[Erh13]. In the year 1832, Greece became an independent nation. Subsequently, the Ottoman Empire’s dissolution continued after the Russo – Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 with the Congress of Berlin. Montenegro, Rumania and Serbia achieved independence. In addition, a small region of Bulgaria achieved independence, although the rest of it continued with the Ottoman Empire. Austria obtained administrative control over Bosnia – Herzegovina, which remained in the Ottoman Empire. While Britain made Cyprus captive; Austria and Russia kept up their rival endeavors to control the Balkans[Roa13]. The Central Powers in World War I were supported by the Ottoman Empire. This caused Britain to rescind the 1878 treaty and annex Cyprus. Thereafter, the British offered Cyprus to Greece, if the latter would participate in the war on the side of the Allies. As the Greeks failed to arrive at a decision, within the time specified by the British, this offer was withdrawn. Cyprus was subsequently made a crown colony [His13]. The Ottoman Empire was succeeded by the Turkish nationalist government[Met95]. This government formally recognized Cyprus as a British possession, by the terms of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne[Tre13]. The Ottoman Empire constitutes one of the longest lasting and largest Empires of the World. It drew its inspiration and sustenance from Islam. With the defeat, in the year 1571, at the Battle of Lepanto, where it lost the major portion of its navy, the Ottoman Empire’s decline commenced. This deterioration continued across the subsequent centuries, and by the time of World War I and the Balkan Wars, this empire was effectively demolished[BBC09]. Works Cited Azm07: , (Azmi), Par08: , (Parry 65), Goc96: , (Gocek 3), Wha13: , (What is History of Kosovo), Bay13: , (Bayezid II), Ott08: , (Ottoman Empire), Chr13: , (Chronology), Sar12: , (Sarv), Def01: , (Defeat, Recovery, and Imperial Expansion), New82: , (Newmark, Hubbard and Prifti 4), Iso11: , (Isom – Verhaaren 82), Iso11: , (Isom – Verhaaren 83), Cha10: , (Chambers), Thi12: , (This Day in History), Erh13: , (Erhan), Roa13: , (Road to War, Franco – Prussian War to Sarajevo, 1871 – 1914), His13: , (History, British Administration), Met95: , (Metz), Tre13: , (Treaty of Lausanne), BBC09: , (BBC Religions), Read More