Historical Chronicles of Mesopotamia - Essay Example

MESOPOTAMIA History has always been chronicled as a series of political events, rise and fall of dynasties. It is within the framework of political history that the historian has to discern the religious and intellectual emotions of the people living in the ancient world. Although literary sources are not abundant sine they have not been preserved till date, archeological sources including monuments and inscriptions provide us a more or less clear picture of the thought process of the people living in the ages gone by. Polytheistic religious ideas are evident in the inscriptions and dedications of various temples and shrines, the myths and legends of particular gods, the recorded or observed practices of various cults and rituals, hymns and prayers that were transcribed by the priests and priestesses of the temples. Mesopotamian thought process and religious ideas were characterized by polytheism coupled with a unique pessimism. In Mesopotamia, city-states were theocracies. The king was regarded as the political and religious leader of the city-state. He was the people's representative to the gods, and was the 'First Servant' of the gods to the people. Individual city-states often adopted a patron god to worship as their chief god. but recognized the validity of other gods and worshipped them on appropriate occasions. However, one god would be chosen as a patron god to aid them in time of war or crisis. The Mesopotamian polytheism gradually evolved involving a pantheon of gods, goddesses and other spiritual beings who were believed to have created the universe, controlled nature and the balance of humanity. They were supposed to have created order out of Chaos. Cults and cultic practices such as hymns, festivals, and sacrifices would be offered to these deities to gain favor or appease them. Animals ranging from bulls, rams, cows, sheep, goats, and pigs; cereal grains, rare wood, fruits, vegetables and other objects of value was offered as a sacrifice by the people with the belief that this would gain them the favor of the god receiving the sacrifice. It was also believed that the Gods derived nourishment from the sacrifices. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, after the storm and floodwaters abate and Utanapishtim lands on Mt. Nimush, he offers sacrifice to the gods. The gods responded by gathering like flies around the sacrifice having not received any because humanity was destroyed by the flood: "the gods smelled the sweet savour, and collected like flies over a sheep sacrifice." 2. Only the best yield of the land and best animals were sacrificed at these rituals. It was their conviction that Gods could be appeased only by these offerings. So they had to be of optimum quality. The whole community would be involved in these rituals. Localized or private cults dedicated to a particular god that limited membership to a few or an elite also emerged, but the predominant forms of cultic worship involved the whole community; rich and poor; artisan and craftsmen, city-dwellers and country folk. Mesopotamian polytheism had many gods and goddesses that were immortal, but these gods had gender and specific functions or duties, and thus, limited powers. While they may appear to have been powerful and immortal, they were very human, in terms of behavior and emotions. They had the full range of human emotions: they expressed fear, lust, anger, envy, greed; yet the gods also expressed love, compassion, and a sense of justice, as well as, injustice and revenge. One notices an incredible and overwhelming mood of pessimism and insecurity that underlines the Mesopotamian Weltanschauung (world-view). The Mesopotamians viewed their relationship with their gods in this way rather consistently. Since they were devoid of political and personal security, the threat of constant war contributed to a sense of dread, uncertainty, and pessimism. This is potrayed in the "Lament for Ur", in which the goddess Ningal recounts the destruction of Ur in wartime and the sufferings of her people: "Ur was verily granted kingship - a lasting term it was not grantedWho ever saw a term of royal office completed" 3. The unpredictable flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the windstorms, sand storms, droughts, and earthquakes were all considered to be punishments inflicted by the gods for whatever reason they deemed. Although some people thrived and cultivated communities and cultures, the threat of destruction, whether from war or natural disaster, was always looming large on their sentiments which left in the imagination of the Mesopotamians a sense of impermanence and the limitations of human accomplishment. The Mesopotamians probably did not believe in life after death. They believed that the only purpose of human beings was to serve the Gods. It was their conviction, that while humans lived in this world, the Heavens are reserved for the Gods. "Who, my friend, can ascend to the Heavens Only the Gods can dwell forever with Shamash. As for human beings, their days are numbered, and whatever they keep trying to achieve is but the wind!" 4. A realm of the dead known as the Netherworld is mentione but is not very clrealy described. According to the Mesopotamians the dead people dwell in the House of Dust and there is no sense of reward for leading an ethical life, or punishment for leading an unethical one. One unique feature of the Mesopotamian thought process, as depicted from the available sources, is that despite being profoundly pessimistic and aware of the limitations of human beings, occurrences of mass suicide, excessive hedonistic behavior, are not really heard. Instead, what shines through is the tremendous determination and drive to survive, motivation to provide some comfort in life, and hope for gaining favor from the gods by sacrifice. The desire to achieve immortality, while common, was also seen as impossible to achieve. This is the basic theme of The Epic of Gilgamesh. The epic relates the adventures of Gilgamesh and Enkidu, and tells about Gilgamesh's quest for immortality. The epic gives us a remarkable insight into the polytheistic world-view of Mesopotamian civilization and their relationship with their gods. One can find questions or similarities to many questions that bother human beings at some point of their lives - regarding life and death, purpose of life, relevance of values. Gilgamesh, having befriended Enkidu, was driven by a desire to go out into the world and experience life. Living in Uruk, Gilgamesh was motivated by a desire to become famous. This could be achieved by challenging the beast Humbaba, who guarded the Cedar Forest, and cut down the tallest cedar as a trophy. He believed that even if he died in the process, he would ensure his immortality with this great deed: "Should I fall, I will have established my fameI will undertake it and I will cut down the Cedar. It is I who will establish fame for eternity!"7. Both Gilgamesh and Enkidu then proceed to Lebanon to challenge Humbaba. Humbaba, the Bull of Heaven was killed and the tallest cedar was brought back. Gilgamesh and Enkidu celebrated their success. But when the gods met in council, in order to punish Enkidu with death, for having performed these great deeds, Gilgamesh, realized the futility of this success. Enkidu's demise gave birth to fears of death in Gilgamesh and prompted him to seek immortality. He seeks the secret of immortality from the only human being granted immortality by the gods, Utanapishtim, the man who survived the Great Flood. Gilgamesh is disillusioned when he realizes that it was not through some great deed or service. Utanapishtim merely survived the flood and was granted immortality as an arbitrary gift from the gods: "Previously Utanapishtim was a human being. But now let Utanapishtim and his wife become like us, the gods!" 8. Utanapishtim and his wife were also old and were forced to live apart from human society forever. Despondent, Gilgamesh decided to return home to Uruk empty-handed, but Utanapishtim offered him an opportunity to become immortal by staying awake for six days and seven nights. This offer appears to be completely unrealistic. Utanapishtim was not a god and could not confer immortality. Desperate, Gilgamesh accepts the challenge, but, exhausted from his travels, falls asleep for six days and seven nights, and when awakened, is totally frustrated again at his failure. Utanapishtim offers him one more opportunity, not at immortality, but at a chance of restoring his youth by capturing a plant that grows at the bottom of the sea. He tells Gilgamesh where to find the plant, and when he retrieves it, he loses it to a serpent, which swallows it whole and sheds it skin. Completely disappointed and resigned, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, empty-handed, His struggle to achieve immortality was pointless. Other documents that reinforce this theme of pessimism and uncertainty in the relationship that the Mesopotamians believe that they have with their gods, and the capricious way the gods respond to the humans who make appeals to them is seen in the text entitled, "Man and his God," or "The Sufferings of a Righteous Man." This work, which dates from the Sumerian Period, many scholars speculate, formed the basis of the Book of Job in the Hebrew Bible because of the challenge a believing man speaks to his personal god asking why he must suffer: You have doled out to me suffering ever anew My companion says not a true word to me, My friend gives the lie to my righteous word. The man of deceit has conspired against me, And you, my god, do not thwart him, You carry off my understanding, The wicked has conspired against me On the day shares were allotted to all, my allotted share was suffering My god, I would stand before you, would speak to you my word is a groan My god, you who are my father who begot me, lift up my face How long will you neglect me, leave me unprotected How long will you leave me unguided 9. These prayers and lamentations did not go unanswered by his personal god. His god hears of his misery and it soothed his heart. The god swept away and dissipated his suffering restoring him to his previous status. The Mesopotamian polytheism and pessimism is reflected in many of the texts and epics of the contemporary times and gives a very thorough insight to the thought process of the people. What is very evident and remarkable is the fact that despite so many natural calamities, political instability resulting in inherent insecurity there was a commendable attempt to survive. In some cases, adventure seems to be the chosen way of life than comforts of civilization. Moreover, there is a definite reflection of an attempt to live well and comfortably despite the given odds. The religion of the Mesopotamians is polytheistic and comprised of a pantheon of Gods but they believed in their own personal gods. Bibliography 1 - Ernst Cassirer, Language and Myth. (New York: Dover Publications, Inc.; 1953), 18. 2. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Ed. & Trans. Maureen Kovacs. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 1989), 102 3. Cited in Thorkild Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. (New Haven: Yale University Press; 1976), 91. 4. Epic of Gilgamesh, 10-11 5. Jackson Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 5th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing; 2003), 13. 6. The Creation Epic," in Ed. James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, Vol. I: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, (Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1958), 36. 7. The Epic of Gilgamesh, op.cit, 20. 8. Ibid. 103. 9. "Man and His God," in Ed. James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, Vol. I I: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, (Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1975), 138-39. Read More