Early Western Civilization - Essay Example

By 5,000 BCE the Nile valley from modern-day Sudan right to its Delta on the Mediterranean seacoast had been home to various peoples for many thousands of years. As early as 16,000 BCE people living near the shores of lakes formed on the upper Nile, as well as on the upper river itself, lived in small villages, made fishing gear and boats, and produced some of the earliest pottery known. By the 4th millennium BC the valley had also attracted cattle keepers from the vast Saharan savannas to the west, and perhaps traders from other Neolithic communities to the northeast, as well. The Lower Nile, from the First Cataract (modern-day Aswan) to the Mediterranean Sea, provides two different, but related environments. Moving north from the First Cataract, the Nile flows through a comparatively narrow valley. The lands along the banks are characterized by a series of natural basins (called hods), which have been altered by human engineering for the last 7,000 years. As one nears the Delta in the north, the floodplain widens and the basins become less distinct, until in the Delta itself the land is divided not into basins, but into islands and peninsulas formed by the alluvial deposits of soil over thousands of years. In very ancient times "Lower Egypt" began south of the Delta itself, including the broader floodplain from Memphis north. The most important historical-geographic feature of the Lower Nile, of course, is its annual flood, which following the summer rains in Ethiopia, bursts into Egypt in August and typically continues for two months, leaving both destruction and riches in its wake. The flood, although annual, is not uniform. When there is drought in the highlands to the south, the flood may be a comparative trickle. However, in years of abundant rainfall in the watershed, the flood can become a torrent, washing everything before it. It is now thought that early populations, which ventured into the valley of the Nile below the First Cataract, were more concerned to build dikes to protect themselves and their herds against this possibility of a destructive flood than to irrigate crops (Atkins 32; Parker, 7-8). The fact that cattle were important in early Egyptian history brings up another point about the environment in antiquity. In the earliest days of Egyptian development, there was no Sahara Desert. The lands that now form the Sahara enjoyed savanna, rather than desert environments. And as we have already seen, the Saharan peoples had been pioneers of cattle domestication. Until about 2300 BCE, that is well into Pharaonic times, the Lower Nile flowed through an area of rainfall, which supported thriving cattle herding societies. Not only cattle raising, but also fishing and agriculture have a long history in the Nile valley. The upper Nile, in what is now the country of Sudan, was one of the areas that developed fishing settlements during the long era of the African Aquatic Tradition. Since some of these Late Stone Age communities used grinding stones to process wild grains, which they harvested in the fertile alluvial plains, it seems likely that it was their descendants who became the first full time farmers in this part of Africa. Between 5000 BCE and 4000 BCE farming and cattle keeping replaced hunting and fishing as the main ways of life along the Nile. Of course, people continued to both hunt and fish, but they were becoming economically and socially dependent upon cattle raising and farming. Picture, if you can, what the Nile valley (of modern-day Egypt) must have been like in the 2,000 years between the early Neolithic and the beginning of the unified kingdom under the pharaoh Narmer/Menes in about 3,000 BCE. Had you traveled the region early in the period, your journey would have taken you along the higher ground of the valley, inland of the river itself, where encampments of cattle herders or small farming settlements would have hosted you. As you traveled the length of the area, both cultural and linguistic differences would have been apparent, with life centering around local earth spirits as well as goddesses and gods representing the forces of nature (human and environmental). These coincide with the several distinctive Neolithic cultural traditions that archaeologists have identified with this era. At that time only a few fields were situated in the flood plain itself. However, as communities became more numerous and their technology and social organization better adapted to the local environment, they began to use the dry season between the floods to shore up natural basin boundaries. This enabled them to more safely graze their cattle or plant their crops in this fertile land. As this ability to defend themselves against the destructive power of the flood increased, so did their colonization of the fertile natural basins near the river. By about 4,000 BCE these riverside pioneers had developed production levels capable of supporting specialized crafts workers in wood, stone, copper and gold, as well as specialists in religion and trading. As in other parts of the Neolithic world of the time, religious emphases shifted to a focus on agriculture and the fertility of both women and the earth. In the Nile valley religious thinkers also were absorbed with the cycles of the flood, which they connected to the appearance of the star Sirius in the night sky. From the viewpoint of people at that time there was an intimate connection between supernatural and natural phenomena. Socially, greater control of the flood required greater organization of labor and cooperation of people joined together by residence in a particular basin area. Effective flood management also required planning. It is in this context that the earliest pictographic writing appeared. Between about 4,000 and 3200 BCE the pace of change quickened in the Nile valley. More sophisticated flood-control technology, aided by the development of larger political/religious units headed by an emergent class of priest-scribes, led to colonization of the floodplain basins themselves. The priest-scribes took the lead in both predicting the floods and organizing the construction of dikes. They also required and organized storage of food for use in hard times. With greater productivity larger villages, now with houses made of brick, made their appearance. Burials became more elaborate. Writing became more stylized and flexible as the full hieroglyphic system developed. Everyday items now are included in graves. Differences in burials indicate that social class had made its appearance. For the first time you could have made your journey along the Nile by boat, indicating an increase in the volume of trade, as well as improvements in communication. Merchants regularly visited not only points along the Nile, but ports on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in modern-day Lebanon and Israel (Lynasson & Peters 20-22). The idea and practice of monarchy also became established, apparently first among the more pastoralist-oriented peoples of Nubia, where the earliest known Egyptian-style royal burial was recently discovered. These religious, economic, social and political advances allowed the local flood district-based communities to become more and more effectively organized to exploit the environment for their benefit. This is the context in which the earliest socio-political formations we could call states appeared. By 3500 BCE the autonomous local hod states had joined together into two confederations of allied states, one for Lower Egypt (from about Memphis north) and the other for Upper Egypt (from the Memphis area to Thebes in the south). Ancient Egypt was an early civilization that developed in and around a major river valley. Located along the course of the Nile River, the ancient Egyptians developed irrigation systems and flood control and retention systems to help harness the only reliable source of water within this desert environment. Yet, unlike ancient Mesopotamia, the floods in ancient Egypt occurred on a predictable annual basis, thus making farming easier, and provided the ancient Egyptians with a reliable seasonal cycle. Moreover, the Nile not only served as a reliable source of water, but also provided a source of food and papyrus for making paper. The history of Egypt is the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world although they are not to be confused with the current Egyptians due to the many demographic shifts and migrations over the millennia. The Nile valley forms a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the east and west by deserts, to the north by the sea and to the south by the Cataracts of the Nile. The need to have a single authority to manage the waters of the Nile led to the creation of the world's first state in Egypt in about 3000 BC. Egypt's peculiar geography made it a difficult country to attack, which is why Pharaonic Egypt was for so long an independent and self-contained state (Shulman 46; http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.phpmodule_id=4). Early Mesopotamia was neither a country nor a nation, but an area of independent city-states. These city-states were initially ruled by priests who were in charge of building and maintaining the irrigation systems. The irrigation systems allowed the city-states to grow a surplus of food and thus turn their attention towards other specializations. As time passed and outside threats from nomadic raiders impacted the survival of the city-states, successful military leaders eventually became the rulers (kings) of these areas, who were perceived to be all powerful and had a divine right to rule. For the societies of ancient Mesopotamia, religion was a means for explaining the natural world and why things occurred. Ancient Mesopotamian religion was based on the complex system of polytheism. Moreover, because ancient Mesopotamians believed that these gods controlled every part of life, the only way to ensure survival and prosperity was through service to the gods. According to the Torah, some Mesopotamians were monotheistic and they eventually left Mesopotamia and migrated to the land of Canaan. These people, who became known as the Hebrews, and, eventually, the Israelites, were the first believers in Judaism.With priests acting as direct links to the gods and the king as the gods' appointed representative on earth, the ancient Mesopotamian religion helped to assure that the people would obey their ruler, creating order and stability, instead of anarchy. The eventual expansion of city-states into empires caused the need to create a consistent governmental framework and codes of law like Hammurabi's Code that would unify different peoples in far off areas. Expansion and the need to acquire scarce resources also brought about increased trade with far off areas. To help ensure an even and efficient system of trade, ancient Mesopotamians developed a system of weights and measures (bulla), and a method of recording transactions in writing (pictographs and then cuneiform). Like many other early civilizations, Mesopotamia was located in and around major river valleys. In fact, the word Mesopotamia itself comes from the Greek language and means, "the land between two rivers." Located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Mesopotamia was established on the barren plains of present-day Iraq, and parts of Syria and Turkey. While the climatic conditions of this area are often desert-like throughout most of the year, the Mesopotamian people were able to adapt to this environment through the creation of irrigation and water retention systems that helped to control the unpredictable floods that occurred throughout the growing season (Anderson 5). Greece has a warm climate, similar to Southern California, where farmers can raise crops all year long. Greece is made up of many islands and is ideally located for sea trade. The Ancient Greeks made extensive contacts with people from other advanced cultures and these contacts led to the spread of ideas that spurred the development of Greek civilization. Around 750 B.C. Greece was coming out of its Dark Age as isolated villages began to develop into cities. As cities grew, trade increased and leaders arose. The isolated cities developed into city-states----independent, self-governing units.The idea of democracy was developed over several centuries. The people in the early Greek city-states were ruled by kings in a monarchy. Over time, the kings began to rely on wealthy landowners, or nobles, to help defend their land from invaders. These nobles began to demand to share some of the king's powers, resulting in an oligarchy. Food shortages caused unrest and discontent among the population. These problems led to the rise of tyrants who seized power by force and ruled the city-state single-handedly. Some people supported these leaders because they promised to make reforms. However, eventually, the citizens of Athens became upset with the harsh rule of a tyrant, overthrew him, and began to share decision-making power. This was the beginning of the world's first democracy. The Greeks were polytheistic and believed that Zeus, the king of the gods, sat on a golden throne atop Mount Olympus and ruled all other gods and all of the Greeks. The Greeks believed that all aspects of their lives were controlled by the gods and that humans had little to no free will. The gods of Greek myths formed a family, and each member had a specific role with particular duties and powers. Zeus, as head of the family, set standards of justice and made sure that humans and gods followed them. Greek religious belief influenced all aspects of life including art, literature, drama, leisure activities, and daily decision making. The Olympic Games honored Zeus, Greek myths told the stories of the gods, drama festivals which included comic and tragic plays were held to honor the gods, and Greeks regularly visited sanctuaries and shrines to receive guidance and advice from the gods through oracles. Sparta and Athens were the two largest city-states in Greece and each developed a unique society. Men in Sparta were required to devote a large portion of their life to military service and all of their education focused on military training. Spartan women had relative freedom as independent family caretakers. While Athens did not ignore their military, boys and men in Athens were encouraged to pursue a rich cultural education and the exercise of personal freedoms. Athenian women, on the other hand, had little political, economic, or social freedom, no decision-making power, and were only educated at home (Anderson 142-146). The Golden Age of Athens was led by Pericles, who sought to protect and beautify Athens while strengthening democracy. During the rule of Pericles, Greek culture flourished and many Greek male citizens became active participants in their government. However, citizenship excluded women, slaves, and foreigners. The glory of Athens came to an end as a result of war, disease, the loss of effective leadership, and the inability of the society to live up to its own ideals. The growing power of the Persian Empire posed a threat to both Athens and Sparta who, despite their differences, banded together to fight a common enemy. Eventually, Alexander the Great created a Greek empire that defeated and overtook not only the Persians, but other empires as well. Alexander's military genius and his aggressive spreading of Greek culture left an enduring Hellenistic influence on conquered lands. Greek cultural expressions left a deep and lasting impression that still influences our lives today. Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle searched for the truth and the meaning of life and challenged their societies by looking beyond the gods for answers to their questions about the world. Epic poems like the Odyssey and the Iliad portrayed an appreciation for complex heroes who used their intelligence and physical strength to overcome insurmountable odds. Lyric poetry richly portrayed human emotions and feelings. Classical Greek architecture and art are still greatly admired and copied today. Many Greek scientific and mathematical ideas are still used today and ancient Greece was one of the first societies to look for the natural causes for diseases. References Anderson, Victor. Mesopotamia And Other Ancient States. London: Routledge, 1991. Atkins, Joseph. History Of Middle East. New York: Norton, 1996. Lynasson, Frank & Peters, Jane. Life In The Nile Valley. Toronto: Gibson, 1984. Online: 28 Oct 2005 Parker, Glenn. Geography of Nile. Lancaster, 1990. Shulman, Derek. The Rise Of Egypt. Columbus, OH: Prentice, 1979. Read More