A Vanished World Issues - Essay Example

?A Vanished World Introduction Study of history is useful to learn lessons from the past and make corrections in the future conduct. Lowney’s book “A Vanished World: Medieval Spain” is a classical real life-example of how religions deeply affected the livelihood of people for no fault of theirs. Today’s democratic world is no exception. The book is clear a lesson for those who would like to know how one can leverage power and how the vanquished have to cope with the new scenario for survival. Sudden changes would explain the rationale for cooperation and advantages of mutual support among the conquerors and conquered. The book especially highlights the progress made in the medieval world with regards to scholarship and medicine. It is noteworthy that religion’s impact has been same now as it was in the past. This essay is understanding of chapters 2,4,5,8 and 11 which are representative of what one can benefit from reading the book as stated above. Fall of Visigoths Visigoths had swept over the old Roman Hispania in the fifth century and similarly Islamic Arabs led by Tarriq stormed over Iberian Peninsula just as Carthaginians conquered centuries earlier. The Christian kingdom of Visigoth’s fall was dramatic, swift and complete that it appeared no reversal could be brought about for several centuries later. Conquest of Spain by Muslims started in July 710 when Tariq ibn Ziyad, the governor of Tangier was deputed by the Governor of the whole Maghrib (presently Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) to invade the Christianized Visigoth kingdom ruled by the Visigoth king Rodrigo (Roderic) whose forces were defeated at the Battle of Barbate (Wadi Lago) on 19 July 1971. Visigoth lost to Tariq forces because of their loosely administered kingdom. King Rodrigo who had clashed with Basques rushed to Cordoba where he kept his army in the waiting to oppose Tariq’s forces. Tariq chose to wait at Algeciras instead and by then strength of his army increased to 12,000 men. While the war was on, Witza’s sons Sisbert and Oppa who had been commanding Visigoth’s army abandoned the king owing to some secret arrangement with the enemy and allowed themselves to be routed. King Rodrigo disappeared and only his white horse and a golden saddle were found by the victors. Tariq’s original intention was only to reconnoiter but he could easily take over the kingdom. Surviving Christians attributed the fall of Visigothic kingdom due to the vices of Witiza or Rodrigo. Still others felt that the fall of Spain to Muslim rulers was a divine punishment for the sins committed by Visigoths. The last thirty years of Visigothic Empire had been characterized by warring factions. As there was no hereditary monarchy, the kingdom had been subjected to constant conspiracy and civil war. At the time of Tariq’s invasions, Visigoth king had not cared to settle the consequences of rivalries within the kingdom at the time of Tariq’s invasion. Visigoths had not cared to secure control of ports and adjacent regions. It emerges therefore that minority Muslims could take over majority Visigoths (Christians) dominated Spain by their sheer brilliance and because of the inefficient administration and preoccupation in worldly pleasures by the Christians (O'Callaghan),(Lowney 29-42). Christian Martyrdoms Christian martyrdom began with the beheading of Euologius who was a martyr activist. He denounced Islam and harbored a Muslim apostate in 859. Islamic culture flourished in Cordoba and some Cordoban Christians violently reacted to the situation. Eulogius and his co-activists wanted to awaken the conscience of their fellow Christians who were attracted to Islam. Lowney draws a parallel to the present situation of Muslims embracing martyrdom against Christians. Isaac, a Christian scholar who was mediating between majority Christians and minority Muslims and in a prestigious Government job for tax collections suddenly resigned for unknown reasons and pursued Christianity more vigorously. In that connection, in 851 he deliberately blasphemed Muhammad while he was discussing Islam before a leading Quadi (Judge) which was a capital offense. Isaac was executed by the Muslim authorities and his body was left hanging upside down to be picked up by scavengers to serve as a warning to the 'would be' blasphemers. This was followed by three martyrdoms of Christians followed in the subsequent weeks few months after which two Christian women Maria and Flora also met with martyrdom. Maria’s Muslim mother had converted to her husband’s Christianity and Flora had grown as a devout Christian after her Muslim father’s death. Perturbed by the spate of Christian martyrs involving butchering of women that followed, Muslim authorities began to worry though at some point of time Cordoba’s Emir thought of killing all Christian men and selling Christian women to slavery but he was advised against by wise men who feared mass uprising of majority Christians against minority Muslims that ruled them. Authorities appealed to Christians to embrace Islam and persuaded them to enjoy the precious life without giving up into martyrdom. It is mentioned after the killing of Euologius, there were sporadic martyrdoms. Laws were enacted to ban construction of churches and repairs to the existing Churches. Religious processions and tolling of church bells were proscribed. Christians and Jews were made second-class citizens liable to pay special poll tax. Gradually Islamic prosperity attracted even the devout Christians and they switched over Arabic dresses too (Lowney 55-69). There are many examples of Christians occupying positions of authorities which suggest that Muslim Emirs had not pressed for implementations of sanctions against Christian way of life except for blaspheming Islam. Christians were engaged as soldiers and tax collectors during the ninth century. The executed Eulogius’ brother Joseph was member of the principatus in late 840s. Evidence shows that there was a relaxed legal climate until Isaac was executed for blaspheming Islam. Christians and not Jews were seen as trouble makers and they were punished for only political reasons. The fact that laws were not strictly enforced against Christians is not to suggest weakness on the part of ruler whose wish was to promote cordial relationship between Christians and Muslims and to elevate Christians to public service positions. The idea was to allow Christians to merge in Cordoban society. Sexual relationship between a male dhimmi and female Muslim was prohibited but a male Muslim could legally marry a Christian or Jew (Lowney 55-69). This explains how rulers and the ruled adapt themselves to the changing scenarios depending on the strengths and weaknesses of the respective sides. Hindu-Arabic Numerals It was the French Pope Sylvester (Gerbert) who learned Arbaic numerals and Abacus short cuts to Spain when he came to Spain in 900s for religious studies after he was spotted as a genius and prodigy by the Benedictine monastery at Aurillac. At the time, Spain was predominantly a Muslim culture He learnt the Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3 and so on up to 9 and found they were easier to apply for calculations than the Roman numerals I, II, III, IV etc. They are superior to Roman numerals (Lowney 71-78) Al-Khwarizmi, a ninth century Persian Muslim mathematician first adopted this system originally invented by Indian mathematicians during 1st and 4th centuries. This system of numerals came to Vigila’s northern Spanish Monastery in Albelda by 976. It had already been found by Gerbert a decade earlier. He was clever enough to grasp its advantages which his fellow Europeans detested using for centuries. Arabic numerals are useful for long division. They are also “space efficient”. For example, SUPER BOWL 334 would have to be written as Super Bowl CCCXXX1V. Other advantages are in the case of “334” in which each symbol represents it value by its position whereas in the case of Roman numerals CCCXXXIV each numeral is to deciphered which takes longer than its equivalent “334”. Gerbert who found the invaluable treasure while at Spain, was also an ingenious tinkerer besides being a mathematician, philosopher and theologian. Hindu-Arab numerals did not catch up with Romans, as Gerbert himself did not appear to have grasped significance of zero. Besides, Europeans did not need such a system at that time as they did not have much computing needs with their economy not being so sound and urban life had collapsed. There were not much shopkeepers, bankers, or merchants. They were also concerned with potential frauds by (for example) changing of $ 123 in a pronote as $ 423 which is not all that easy in respect of Roman Numerals. Besides, there was no paper in use by Romans. It was only when the paper making technology could be applied and paper became available, use of Hindu-Arabic numerals became popular especially because papermaking was cheaper than making parchments. Al-Khwarizmi from whose name the English word “algorithm” was derived as a corruption of the name, was one of many scholars who had realized the potential of Indian number system. Although he was not the highly rated maths scholar, he explained how Indian numbers could be used in various situations including algebra through his Al-jabrwal- Muqqabbla (Completion and Balancing) (Lowney 71-78). Thus even in an enemy territory, one can find positive aspects. History shows there can be opportunities in every calamity. Re-conquest by Christians While Muslim Spain was fragmenting into small kingdoms, Christian Spain was uniting. The Christian kingdoms who had hitherto been paying tribute money to buy peace from Muslim invasion, now started taking tribute payments from the disintegrating Muslim kingdoms. Christians did not think it fit to recapture lost territories from Muslims. They did not want to disturb economically well-off Muslim kingdom but continue taking tribute payments from instead. The main beneficiary of Muslin Spain disintegration was to be the neighboring Castile where descendants of Pelayo, a guerilla fighter who had fought Islam. The border of Castile which had long been exposed to onslaught of Spain Muslims, was no longer a curse with the dissolving of Muslim Spain into petty fiefdoms. Castile’s rulers who had been expanding their kingdom, took advantage of ruining Muslim Spain and seized Toledo in 1085. The petty Spain kingdoms woke up to the reality and solicited military support from North Africa’s Muslim Almoravid Muslim dynasty whose culture of austerity was quite the opposite of Hispano-Arab emirs who were used to luxurious way of life. Hence, arrival of Almoravid was not to their liking. Muslim Spain princes considered Almoravid as “uncouth and primitive fanatics” but had to compromise with them for the sake of prevention of their kingdoms’ imminent collapse. They thought it was better to identify with the tribal Almoravids than being captive s of Alfonso. Spain Muslim princes invited Almoravids to fight Alfonso VI’s armies on condition that Almoravid should return to their country after the war. As agreed, Almoravids went back to North Africa after routing Alfonso VI’s armies. The Almoravid thought they would have to come again looking at the prosperity of al-Andalus and their dissolute life style. The austere Almoravids attributed Muslim Spain’s downfall to their “religious and moral laxity”. Almoravid movement was rooted in religion rather than politics. When the next request came from Muslim Spain in 1090, Almoravid did not go back this time. They came to Taifa not to help their rulers but to conquer them and merge them into Almoravid Empire. Taifa rulers resisted and sought help from Alfonso VI but he was not in a position to do so. Taifa kingdoms fell one after another but it was short lived. By 1118, Alfonso conquered the Muslims. Almoravid also failed to recapture Toledo. Almoravids did not like subservience of their co-religionists to Christians and did not want them to pay tribute money. In the wake of Almoravid’s aggression, by the year 1145, al-Andalus again disintegrated and with Muslim disunity Christian forces advanced into north (SpainThenAndNow). (Lowney 103-117) Victories and defeats are not permanent if goals and aims are not bonafide. Second Moses Maimonides’ contribution to medicine King Alfonso took over Muslim Toledo in 1089 thereby becoming the ruler of two religions. One of the Spain’s golden age heroes is Moses Maimonides known as the most illustrious leader in Judaism in the post-Talmudic era. He is also known as the symbol of Jewish rationalism. Maimonides was the physician who revived European medical science from the centuries old lull. The physician’s story owes its beginning to a fanatical North African Muslim dynasty. Moses was thirteen years when the North African invaders entered Cordoba in 1148 just as it happened in 711 when Iberia was invaded by Tariq. They were Almohad fighters who replaced Almoravid with the aim of resurrecting failing Muslim Spain and restoring it to religious greatness. Almohad did not tolerate Jews or Christians in Spain who were also equally opposed to Muslims in Spain. Jews went to the extent of changing their attire to that of Muslims to take part in external affairs. But they were overcome by the Muslims. Mose’s father with his three children roamed in Spain for more than twelve years in search of hospitable climate. In 1159, the family quit Spain for exile. After twenty years of leaving Cordoba, Moses family settled in Egypt where Moses wanted to live and die after raising his son. Soon thereafter, Moses Maimonides, the Jew managed to get appointed as the personal physician and advisor to the Muslim al-Fadid and vizier to the warrior Sultan Saladin who had taken control of the Holy land from the crusaders. After Saladin’s death in 1193, Moses Maimonides became the second court physician to Saladin’s eldest son. He had to be always tied up at Saladin’s place due to indisposition of someone or other in his family. Unlike his father who wanted to consolidate the empire by recovering lost territories, his son pursued earthly pleasures and the enormous numbers of maids available to him ensured sapping of his energies. Moses gave him home-concocted medicine for virility (Lowney 143-156). Here again, the Christians found the valuable treasure of mathematical knowledge from the enemy territory but did not look down upon it as an inferior knowledge though their counterparts believed it was part of some black magic. Conclusion and Reflections The five chapters of the book gleaned as above offer lessons to the reader and serious students of history as to how religion has been the major deciding factor in running of the governments and day to day life of the people. Religious fanaticism has been as vigorous as it was in the past. Martyrdoms are still the order of the day in many parts of the world today in the form of suicide bombers. Co-operation among the minority ruling class and majority oppressed class as had been between Muslims on the onside and Christians and Jews on the other side in Medieval Spain are being witnessed even in today’s world. This is a sheer tactic to run government by the minority over the majority. Reverse is also true in today’s world as a form of appeasement. Jihadis of al-Queada are replica of what had happened in medieval Spain which shows religious fervor will continue to shape the policies and politics around the world. Works Cited Lowney, Chris. A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print. O'Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Spain. New York: Cornell University Press, 1983. Print. SpainThenAndNow. The Arrival of the Almoravids: Background causes. 2009. Web. 23 October 2013 . Read More