American History 1865 to Present. Native Americans - Essay Example

?American History: Native Americans - 1865 to present Introduction: The history of Native Americans is wrought with various accounts of the fears, values, beliefs, hopes, experiences shared by them as well as their trials and tribulations post the arrival of foreigners on their shores. It depicts the series of events which led them to flee their land restricting them to reservations with limited access to or authority for self-governance. The history of Native Americans during the course of the nineteenth century highlights the manner in which the tribe was forced to move westwards through military might; a succession of failed treaties and laws and regulations governing crucial elements of their lives including the right to education, practicing religion, and other cultural observances. As the U.S. geared for its aggressive expansion policy, the native tribes were pushed further away losing not only their land status and identity as a whole. This study traces the history of the Native Americans through six key events between the period 1865 to present beginning from the Powder River Expedition in the year 1865 to the Termination of the Reservations and its consequences and implications on the Native Americans in present day America. It also includes a comprehensive discussion on the various laws, treaties, and policies implemented from time to time including the Dawes Act and the Indian New Deal during the mid nineteenth century to the various federal congressional laws introduced over the years with a view to assimilate the tribe into the mainstream society. Brief Background: The Native Indians have historically possessed several territories ranging from the southern Mississippi, Louisiana to the west-central Alabama and extensive territories along the coast of the Pacific Ocean (Wesson, 2004). Significant proportions of these territories were lost due to forced relocation and other aggressive and hostile policies by the white Americans over the course of history. The federal government introduced several anti-tribal laws with the sole purpose of claiming some of the valuable resources owned by the miscellaneous tribal groups. Consequently after several bloody wars fought between the two warring parties and planned military aggression by the white Americans against the natives, the Indians who were eventually rendered powerless were driven out of their territories. However in the later years, i.e. during the end of the nineteenth century several attempts were made by the U.S. government to compensate the natives for their loss by way of reformative laws which included abolishment of the restrictive policies and introduction of measures to assimilate them within the mainstream American society. Thus, while a significant duration of the nineteenth century was plagued with wars and hostility among the two groups, the early and mid twentieth century in contrast paved way towards a more inclusive form of governance which aimed at rehabilitation and reformation of the Native Americans. 1866: The Powder River Indian Expedition The Powder River Indian Expedition refers to a full scale offensive launched by the American Army against a group of Native Americans namely the Sioux, Cheynne, and the Arapaho Indians, during the gold rush (Clodfelter, 1998). The Native Indians were pushed back from their newly assigned territories by a group of explorers and gold hunters and were left with no other alternative but to fight back in a bid to defend their territories. Comprised of a group of volunteers the Native Indians waged sporadic war against the raiding army of white Americans by mostly attacking isolated farms and eventually, transportation routes. As a result the white population living in and around Denver, fearing attacks from the Native Indians, pleaded protection from the governor which led to dispatch of the First and Third Colorado Cavalry to the Indian reservation in Sand Creek (Hampton, 1964). The massacre at Sand Creek by the Army and brutalities unleashed by the Cavalry regiments who raided and massacred the inhabitants of the Southern Cheyenne village headed by Chief Black Kettle at Sand Creek which claimed several innocent lives including women and children further spiralled the violence in the plains (Clodfelter, 1994). The key mission of the Powder River Indian expedition was to completely erase the menace caused by the warring Indian tribes. Three serious battles were fought during the period September 1, 5 and 8 including a few lesser skirmishes. Finally on September 24, 1865 when the scouts headed by Connor were lost while wandering into the Indian territories and eventually found close to calamity ending the expedition (Clodfelter, 1994). 1887: The Dawes Act The end of the nineteenth century marked the beginning of a progressive era whereby significant efforts were initiated by the U.S. government aimed at renunciation of its divisive policies and adopting a more inclusive approach by encouraging the assimilation of the Native Americans into mainstream society. This approach too was marred by dirty politics whereby a seemingly positive effort on the part of the government eventually spelled doom for the vulnerable Native Americans. It was stated that allocation of land to the natives would enable them to earn a source of livelihood through farming which was the preferred occupation among them. The Dawes Act thus entailed allocation of reservation land which was divided into plots to the tribesmen and prohibited the sale and purchase of such land for a period of at least twenty five years. The Jerome Commission appointed to administer the land allocation process met with the tribal groups during the period of July and October 1890 and used various devious means including threats, bribery and deception to compel the resisting Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs to agree to the concept of land allotment (Berthrong, 1979: p. 337). However Christian reformers argued that such a policy would force those with less land to seek other sources of employment. As a result in a series of legislations enacted between the period 1902 and 1910 under the Dawes Act, the prohibition on sale and purchase of reservation land was lifted. However, due to poor administration by the bureaucrats, by the year 1921 most the Native Indians were cheated by the white Americans to sell their land rendering them landless and economically devastated (Berthrong, 1979: p. 336). The Dawes Act which was originally introduced with the purpose of supporting and providing a source of livelihood to the Native Americans defied its very purpose and eventually stripped the two tribes – the Cheyennes and the Arapahoes off their only possessions rendering them powerless and jobless in the process. The reformative laws thus proved to be highly detrimental and ineffective. 1934: The Indian New Deal The New Indian deal was a reformative policy enacted by John Collier as a means of promoting the development of Native Americans who were deliberately marginalized and taken advantage of by the powerful bureaucrats. This new policy according to Collier aimed at providing means of enhancing and encouraging the economic well-being of the various tribes disadvantaged over the years and ensure their economic, social and political stabilization (Green, 1935: p. 422). The new legislation aimed to rectify the errors made by the old ones to the maximum extent possible. It rectified the forced assimilation of the natives under the 1924 Citizenship Act which offered citizenship to all Native Americans and restore and reallocate the lands to the Indian tribes (Sheriff et al., 2009). John Collier advocated the right of the Native Indians and endorsed and supported their right to maintain and preserve their tribal culture and customs. Various projects introduced under the New Deal Process such as the Indian Emergency Conservation Works proved to be highly beneficial to the native tribes as it helped them in engaging in meaningful employment and achieve financial stability, which were denied to them by the previous reform measures (Taylor, 2001: p. 120). The New Deal programs also initiated efforts aimed at rural economic reconstruction. These programs attempted to integrate social and economic development measures and encouraged increased participation of local tribes in the effective allocation of regional resources as well as land use planning (Taylor, 2001). The New Deal was relatively reformative in its approach and helped in supporting and elevating the status of the Natives to a considerable extent. 1942: Native Americans in World War II Shortly after the Congress declared war in the year 1941, the Native Indians flocked to enlist thus registering their overwhelming presence and patriotism. During the Japanese bombardment of the Pearl Harbour approximately 4000 Native Indians were enrolled in the military, a number which grew drastically by the end of the war to 25000 Indians. The participation of the native Indian women as nurses during times of war was also significantly high. Such involvement of the Natives in the military during the war paved way for a major breakthrough for the tribe since it helped in acknowledging their existence and contribution in the white world ever since their forced retreat towards the reservations (Bernstein, 1991). Several Native Indians worked alongside the white Americans in various war departments and a special policy was introduced requiring the Native Indians to work alongside the white Americans as a means of encouraging mutual cooperation and camaraderie. Due to such overwhelming response of the Native Indians who showed great enthusiasm and interest during the times of war, they were offered opportunities to work alongside their white counterparts which in turn helped them in improving their English literacy skills which proved to be highly useful in the coming years (Franco, 1999). 1944: Establishment of the National Congress of American Indians In November 1944 a new tribal Indian Organization called the National Congress of American Indians was established which marked the beginning of a new era and a turning point for the tribal communities. Their contribution in the World War was revered by the mainstream American society and recognized by the politicians and administrators alike giving them a strong foothold in governing Indian affairs and lobbying for their political interests at the national level (Bernstein, 1991). The NCAI is known to have contributed toward endorsing various pro Native Indian policies in various fields including education, political and social reforms, through its registered office in Washington, D.C. Even today, the organization continues to work toward the development and restoration of tribal sovereignty and assisting various tribal leaders in furthering their political causes. It's political agenda entails continued focus on moderate causes and representing Native Americans at the national level. Over the years the NCAI has actively worked toward eradication of stereotypical names such as Redskins from sports team logos; secure funding for encouraging education among the Native American youth, and seeking advancement among their tribe in the field of science and technology (Johansen and Pritzker, 2007) 1973: The Menominee Restoration Act The Menominee Restoration Act passed in the year 1954 marked the highest achievement for the Native Americans and marked the end of a long and tiring journey from a series of failed treaties, the termination of reservations and successfully culminating into restoration of the tribes. This Act essentially granted the much deserved right to the community to be federally recognized as a tribe (Mitchell and Salsbury, 1999: p. 144). The Restoration act was a direct response to the Termination Act passed by the Congress for specific tribes during the years 1950 - 1960. A total of 109 tribes were terminated by law which caused great dissent among the Native Americans (Edmunds, 2004: p. 303). This act entailed the renunciation of the forced assimilation policies implemented by the government during the 1950s and 1960s hence indicating a dramatic reversal in its approach toward the Native tribes. The very fact that such a law could be introduced is indicative of the existence and determination of the said tribe and its ability to survive through a series of prejudicial laws which eventually led to the extinction of various other tribes over the years (Herzberg, 1977). Hence the Restoration Act of 1954 is a remarkable historical event in the history of America and Native Americans alike. Conclusion: The history of Native Americans is indicative of the various struggles, fears, endurance, and hopes experienced by various tribes during their encounter with the white Americans. From the bloody wars fought during the early nineteenth century to the various failed treaties, and laws attempting to restore the tribes; the efforts on the part of the American government at forced relocation to the termination of the reservations the historical accounts provide an insight at the change in political and economic policies adopted by various government from time to time. The wave of reformation beginning with John Collier and the increased participation of the Indians during the World War have all contributed to the changed perception of the relatively modest tribe in the minds of the white Americans. References: Berthrong, D. J., (1979). Legacies of the Dawes Act: Bureaucrats and land thieves at the Cheyenne-Arapaho Agencies of Oklahoma. Arizona and the West, vol. 21 (4) Winter, 1979: p. 335-354. Bernstein, A. R., (1991). American Indians and World War II: Toward a new era in Indian affairs. University of Oaklahoma Press, p. 40-45, 112-114 Clodfelter, M., (1998). The Dakota War: The United States Army versus the Sioux, 1862-1865. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 203-210 Edmunds, R. D., (2004). The new warriors: Native American leaders since 1990. University of Nebraska Press, p. 303-304. Franco, J. B., (1999). Crossing the pond: The Native American effort in World War II. University of North Texas Press. Green, E., (1935). Indian minorities under the American New Deal. Pacific Affairs, vol. 8 (4) Dec, 1935, p. 420-427. Hampton, H. D., (1964). The Powder River Expedition 1865. Montana: The Magazine of Western History, vol. 14 (4): p. 2-15. Herzberg, S. J., (1977). The Menominee Indians: From treaty to termination. The Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 60 (4) Summer, 1977. p. 266-329. Johansen, B., Pritzker, B., (2007). Encyclopedia of American history. ABC-CLIO Publication, p. 795-797. Mitchell, B., Salsbury, R. E., (1999). Encyclopedia of multicultural education. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, p. 144-146. Sheriff, C., Blight, D. W., Katzman, D. M., Chadacoff, H. P., Logevall, F., (2009). A people and a nation: A history of the United States, Since 1865. Thousand Oaks, California: Cengage Learning Publication, p. 674 Taylor, G. D, (2001). The new deal and the American Indian tribalism: The administration of the Indian reorganization act, 1934-1945. University of Nebraska Press, p. 120-125. Wesson, C. B., (2004). Historical dictionary of early North America. Scarecrow Press Read More