The American Revolution of 1775-1783 s - Term Paper Example

?SEGMENT 7 General Topics During the American Revolution (1775-1783), America faced several challenges, particularly problems with its armed forces, ineffective government, poor economic conditions, and diplomatic concerns. The American armed forces, compared to the British troops, lacked experience, training, and resources. The Americans also experienced morale problems, especially when facing hunger, diseases, and cold environments. Enlistments were not high enough to ensure a steady supply of troops, and AWOLs, or absence without leave, increased too, thereby further reducing human resources for the war. The young government could hardly work effectively too, because the British had bottled up communication channels. The government also had divided institutions; and most of the time, General George Washington was forced to make important decisions by himself. Economic chaos worsened the conditions of the war. Hyperinflation emerged due to overprinting of money and rising debt. American money became almost worthless. America also had troubles in accessing loans and credit. The war, furthermore, stifled trade and commerce. In addition, diplomatic challenges also occurred. America needed European allies against the British. It also needed loans to finance the war. In essence, America needed the diplomatic and financial support of France, Spain, and the Netherlands. From July to December 1776, the initial American strategy was to fight off the British at NYC, to hold Fort Washington, and to fight the British with their own tactics. The motives behind this strategy were that NYC held propagandistic value for America and losing it could be a large morale blow to American forces; protecting NYC also denied the British the access to Hudson River. The strategy was flawed, however, because America was not prepared to fight the European way. Fighting too close to the ocean worked against the Americans, because the British had superior navy strength. During this time, the strategy of the British had two parts: the carrot-and-stick and attack-American-positions approaches. The Americans changed their strategy, because they lost New York and other cities. They fought far from oceans, lakes, and rivers and conducted guerilla tactics. They won better using mobile and attack-and-retreat tactics. They also undercut the British forces using wild goose chases, which was effective in overextending the physical strength and resources of the latter. Eventually, the Americans won because of their guerilla and wild goose chase tactics. Their patience and will, as well as their home court advantage, ensured their victory against the British. In addition, France also sided with the U.S., and the Netherlands loaned money to support the U.S. The British was also exhausted, while the public opinion in the UK increasingly opposed the war against America. The Paris Peace Treaty was signed to end the war. It represented the various agenda of American, Britain, France, and Spain. Americans demanded independence and clearer rights and boundaries as a sovereign nation. Britain wanted to preserve Oregon and Ohio, and decided that America could be an ally that balanced the powers against Spain and France. Spain wanted no treaty with America and desired only to attain British land concessions. France wanted an independent, but weak, America and to ascertain peace with Britain. The states established The Articles of Confederation, which was the first constitution of the United States. The first draft was made in 1777 by the similar Continental Congress that passed the Declaration of Independence. The Articles provided that the states preserved their “sovereignty, freedom and independence.” The states did not set up executive and judicial branches of the government, and they chose a committee of delegates that were composed of representatives from each state. These individuals made up the Congress, a national legislature that the Articles established. Summary of Paris Peace Treaty John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay represented the United States. The Treaty included nine articles, which attained the following conditions: it gave formal recognition to the sovereignty of the U.S.; it established the boundaries of America; it provided fishing rights to the U.S.; it enabled citizens to pay its creditors; it gave back the rights and property of Loyalists; it opened the Mississippi River to the citizens of concerned nations; and it allowed for the swift evacuation of all British forces. Why did George Washington commit a tactical blunder in trying to defend NYC? Why should he have conceded the city to the British, and deployed his defenses elsewhere? George Washington committed the tactical blunder of trying to defend New York City, because he failed to acknowledge that fighting near the ocean was a primary advantage of the British, which had superior naval strength. The British forces were also too numerous and far more skilled and experienced that American troops. Washington’s militia was ill prepared and under-skilled. Washington should have focused on defending other cities, where support was strong and resources were more plentiful. SEGMENT 8 General Topics The new American nation faced serious problems and difficulties. The Articles of Confederation ensured the strength of each state, but the central government was severely weakened. The states were divided over the issue of Western expansion. Congress had no power on taxing the people and enforcing laws. The states also did not bother sending delegates when needed. The economy, moreover, was also severely frail with millions of debt. The military was weak: it could not force the evacuation of the British forces, which remained in Ohio, Maine, and Oregon (staying in American soil breaches the Paris Peace Treaty); it could not fight off Indian attacks; and it could not protect American sovereignty at the seas. American politicians realized the urgency of a Constitutional Convention. Alexander Hamilton led the Convention. He and his supporters believed that too much democracy hurt the central government, and it was critical to unite the interests of the states through having a more decisive set of laws and a stronger national government. On 1787, they held a Constitutional Convention. The states agreed on several points, but differed in opinions regarding the representation issues between big and small states, slavery, the extent of federal power, and ensuring protections against abuse of power. The Constitution was a product of compromise among states. Before it was ratified, the Federalists went against the Anti-Federalists first. The Federalists supported the Constitution. For them, the Constitution was vital in preserving the liberty and independence that the American Revolution attained. James Madison, one of the great Federalist leaders asserted that the Constitution was made to be a “republican remedy for the diseases most incident to republican government.” The Anti-Federalists, on the contrary, opposed the ratification of the Constitution. They doubted the intentions and ends of government activism and distrusted centralized power. The Anti-Federalists supported local governance and the existence of specific and limited federal government powers. The debate in New York regarding the Constitution arguably created the most well-known examination of American political philosophy through the Federalist Papers. The Federalist Papers were originally made of 85 unnamed letters that were sent to newspapers. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote these papers. The first goal of the Federalist Papers was to explain to the public that a strong, centralized government was required to ensure effectiveness in managing foreign affairs. The second goal was to persuade the readers that due to the division of powers in the central government, the national government cannot become a tyrannical ruling system. These separate branches provided a check-and-balance system for the entire government. In Federalist, Number 10, Madison argued that a bigger republic would not necessarily result to a greater abuse of power, but actually developed a national republic that fought tyranny. Madison asserted that the great scope of the national republic would inhibit local interests from rising to supremacy, and therefore, the larger scale of the central government restricted the potential abuse of power among the states. Summary of Bill of Rights After the writing of the Constitution, some states did not want to sign it, because they demanded for more explicit rights for individuals. In 1791, America added ten new rights to the Constitution, which was encapsulated in the Bill of Rights. The first eight rights ensure diverse civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, privacy, right to a jury trial, and to carry weapons, among others. The Ninth Amendment asserts that the Bill of Rights does not mean that these are the only rights that the people are entitled to. The Tenth Amendment stresses that any power, not granted to the federal government, are given to the state governments. In addition, the responsibility for interpreting the Bill of Rights depends on the federal courts. Why did the Federalists eventually win the argument, and won passage of the Constitution? The Federalists won because they were organized, while the Anti-Federalists were divided. The Federalists also countered the arguments of the Anti-Federalists energetically and quickly. Furthermore, the Federalists adopted the Bill of Rights, which was the decisive argument of the Anti-Federalists. In addition, the Federalists seized the mounting nationalism for supporting the Constitution. SEGMENT 9 General Topics During the 1790s, two strong parties emerged: the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. These parties developed because of favorable social conditions, democracy created factions, and the issues of the time divided people along ideological lines. The Federalists believed that human nature is selfish, but it could be channeled to attain collective interests. They also wanted to align the government with the wealthy, because it provided economic stability; they maintained that this kind of stability was the cornerstone of strong nations. The Federalists distrusted direct democracy, because they feared the tyranny of the masses. They admired the British, because educated and wealthy men made important political and socio-economic decisions. They abhorred the French, because the French Revolution led to the Reign of Terror and Anarchy. The Federalists believed in government activism and trusted centralized power. They desired the development of industries. They also wanted an American empire, which ensured American power and wealth. The Democratic-Republicans feared the rise of aristocracy. They distrusted industries and big money, which the Federalists favored. The Democratic-Republicans supported agriculture and craftsmanship. They believed in individualism, instead of government activism. The Democratic-Republicans wanted a weak government that did not interfere with direct democracy. They sought for greater state and local government power. The Democratic-Republicans hated the British, because it represented an aristocratic society, where the wealthy ruled over and oppressed the weaker majority. They also detested that it had a strong and influential centralized government. The Democratic-Republicans favored the French, because the latter supported individual liberties and civic engagement. The Democratic-Republicans also wanted American greatness, but not an American empire. The election of 1796 was the first time that voters selected candidates from competing political parties. The Federalists supported Vice President John Adams, as their presidential candidate, while the Democratic-Republicans chose Thomas Jefferson. John Adams, a Federalist, became president, while a Democratic-Republican, Thomas Jefferson, became the vice president. The election of 1800 was one of the most contentious in American history, because intrigue, treacheries, and a tie in the Electoral College marred its results. It was also the first time that candidates campaigned for the positions they wanted. Thomas Jefferson became president, which marked the transition of power from the Federalist Party to the Republican Party. Summary of Alien and Sedition Acts President John Adams signed the Alien and Sedition Acts into law in 1798. They were composed of four laws that the Federalist-controlled Congress passed. The Congress justified that the Acts were needed to prepare America for war against France. These acts heightened the residency requirement for American citizenship from five to fourteen years. They authorized the president to detain or deport aliens, who were believed to be “dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States.” These acts also restricted freedom of speech by banning those that were critical of the government. The last of the laws, the Sedition Act, stressed that any subversive activity, counting the publication of “any false, scandalous and malicious writing,” was an extreme misdemeanor, punished by fine and imprisonment. Because of this law, twenty-five men, who were mainly editors of Republican newspapers, were arrested and their newspapers were closed. These laws were then primarily designed to weaken and to control the Democratic-Republican Party. The public’s overwhelming negative reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts sealed the victory of Democratic-Republicans in the 1800 elections. Congress revoked the Naturalization Act in 1802, while the other acts expired. Do you believe in strict enumerated, or implied constitutional powers? I believe in both strictly enumerated and implied constitutional powers. I want strict and enumerated powers that define individual rights against a tyrannical government. Some of the rights, however, must be implied too to allow for modern interpretations that fit changing times and needs, especially those that the makers of the Constitution were not able to consider during their own time. However, implied constitutional powers should not breach individual liberties, unless there is strong evidence that these individuals are a threat to public safety and security. Read More