The Rise of Military Regimes in Africa - Essay Example

? "How would you rate the performance of military regimes in African countries? Can military coups be explained by general factors applicable across the continent, or are there specific forces within individual countries?" This study analyzes the rise of military regimes in Africa. More specifically, the study will examine the performance of military regimes and the causes of military coups in Africa. The study will explore whether military coups can be explained based on general factors applicable across the African continent, or whether there exists forces within individual countries. The discussions will entail logical arguments behind the various military regimes that have occurred in Africa. The paper will give an analysis of the various military regimes that have taken place in Africa since independence to modern days. Introduction The focus on military regimes can be traced to the period after 1950 when most African countries gained independence. There was a considerable increase in the number of military coups during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. During this period, a large number of military regimes emerged all over the world. In 1979, fourteen military regimes rose to power in sub-Saharan Africa. Besides the military regimes in Sub-saharan Africa, other regimes held power in Latin America, North Africa, Arab states, South East Asia and East Asia (Falola 2002, p. 235) Because of the tremendous rise of African military regimes, political scientists, historians, sociologists, and economists had a keen interest in studying this form of government. Africa witnessed seventy-one military coups between 1950 and 1990. Since African nations gained independence, a number of military regimes have overthrown the ruling civilian regimes. The military coups replace the government and introduce military rule. In most instances, the military leaders, who take over governance, introduce dictatorial rules (Kieh & Agbese 2004, p. 20). Some of the famous military coups that have taken place in Africa include the Ghanaian coup in 1966, Libyan military coup in 1969 led by Muammar Gaddafi and the Ugandan coup in 1971 led by Idi Amin. Gaddafi led a group of young Libyan military officers in a bloodless coup that saw the overthrowing of King Idris I. In Uganda, Idi Amin succeeded in ending the rule of Milton Obote. Other military coups have happened in countries such as Nigeria, Congo, Togo, among others (Baynham 1986, p. 38). Rating performance of military regimes in Africa Military coups in Africa can be explained by general factors applicable to the entire continent. A keen look at the past military coups indicates a common trend in military coups. Almost all countries in Africa that have had military coups seem to have the same reasons for the eruption of the military coups. From 1960 to 1970, a number of African nations witnessed military coups. Historians have regarded this period as a decade of coups in Africa (Kieh & Agbese 2004, p. 22). Once a coup erupted in one country, it became a phenomenon in other nations. Coups swept across the entire African continent at an alarming rate. Based on this, the rise of military regimes in Africa emerges from general factors applicable to the entire continent. The paper will now focus on the factors that have led to the rise of military regimes in Africa. In an attempt to preserve authority, states have embraced the use of coercion. As a result, some government institutions play the role of enhancing coercion. This reality has significantly directed debates surrounding politics in postcolonial Africa. The government needs coercive agencies, such as the police and military, which should be obedient to political leaders. However, this has not succeeded in Africa. In many instances, the military has used violent means to initiate coup d’etats. This is a contradiction since the military should manage violence on behalf of the state (Thomson 2010, p. 135). A notable factor responsible for military coups in Africa has to do with the pertinent issue of democracy. In a democratic society, the military should serve the interests of the public. This rarely happens in Africa; the military uses its immense powers to achieve its private interests. Political elites, allied to the military, may instigate violence against the state, resulting to a military coup. Although democratic rules call for political neutrality in the military, this has not been the case in Africa. Despite the ethical requirement for impartiality in the military, the security forces may participate in political activities (Thomson 2010, p. 136). Most of the military coups witnessed in postcolonial Africa relate to the ways in which politicians treated soldiers during the pre-independence era. During the pre-colonial period, African political leaders distrusted and despised soldiers. Some politicians saw the military as a force to subdue political opponents and achieve personal power. The politicians’ tendency to misuse the military for personal and political purposes received considerable criticism from the military personnel. The military viewed this as interference with professionalism within the military. Numerous interventions of political leaders in military affairs have led to endless military coups. The military coups witnessed in the early 1960s depict the African governments’ contribution to the military coups (Falola 2002, p. 237). Some African leaders contributed to their own downfall due to meddling into the affairs of the military. For example, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana interfered with the professional integrity of the Ghanaian army domestically as well as abroad. In 1960, he sent Ghanaian troops to Congo to join UN contingent forces. On several instances, Nkrumah instructed the army on how it should operate. This contradicted what the United Nations command had issued. Consequently, the Ghanaian soldiers felt frustrated by Nkrumah’s intervention (Onwumechili 1998, p. 6). They considered it an intrusion of their professional responsibilities and code of conduct. As a result, they planned a coup that saw the overthrowing of Kwame Nkrumah as Ghana’s president. Therefore, the interference of political leaders in military affairs has contributed to the numerous military coups witnessed in Africa. The looming economic crisis in most African countries has also acted as a trigger for the numerous military coups witnessed in the continent. Most African countries have witnessed economic hardships that have led to high incidences of inflation. Poor economic conditions have led to the failure of political leadership in a number of countries. Consequently, leaders have enacted policies to combat inflation (Baynham 1986, p. 40). Some of these measures include currency control, devaluation, price control, and an increment in taxes. However, such measures have generated dissatisfaction from the public. As a result, military interventions have occurred with the main aim of combating such a situation. The military comes in as a way of restoring economic growth and enhancing desirable living standards. Therefore, economic hardships in many African states have led to the instigation of military coups (Edgerton 2004, p. 142). Military coups, in Africa, have also emerged because of political squabbling. Civilian leaders have faced the immense challenges of the inability to resolve their differences for the sake of the nation. Often, the ruling elite experience internal political problems. Consequently, the citizens have felt disappointed and disillusioned. The masses lose faith in the government; as a result, they consider the military as the only best resort (Onwumechili 1998, p. 8). In such instances, the masses express their dissatisfaction over the leadership of the civilian government. Thus, the military comes in to rectify the situation and do away with the government’s inability to provide desirable leadership. As such, the existent personal and political differences between civilian leaders have led to military coups in Africa. Inefficiency of civilian governments has also caused coups in African countries. The leadership of most African countries has witnessed poor administration and corruption. Following the independence of African countries, people had high hopes that their own governments would come up with the best solutions to their problems. African political leaders knew the problems faced by their people; therefore, the people expected them to help reduce these problems (Assensoh & Alex-Assensoh 2001, p. 62). However, this has never been the case; instead, the leaders perpetuated the problems. As a result, the military criticized governments for failing to fulfill the promises. This led to the military takeover of a country’s leadership with the aim of bringing change. Tribalism and ethnicity have also contributed to the numerous military coups and military regimes witnessed in Africa. More often, civic leaders appoint their tribesmen to head government positions. In many instances, the appointed individuals may not have the required qualifications for the job. These ethnic groupings create national disunity more than any other factor (Collins 2008, p. 228). Precisely, government structures tend to be tribal than national; this has led to intertribal oppression. As a result, the society has experienced tension, strife and turmoil. Ethnic affiliations have led to endless tribal conflicts. Consequently, these civil conflicts may cause a coup. The military comes in to end the tribal disparities and create a sense of patriotism. In most of the coups, the military see it as a national obligation to rescue the country from total collapse. The military coups and takeovers in Africa may stem from the interests of the military since the military forms part of the ruling elite. Since Africa lacks rational and legal institutions, the military competes with the government to protect its corporate interests. It cannot give up the involvement in political activities (Thomson 2010, p. 138). This emanates from the fact that, in case they divorce from political involvement, nobody will protect them in the political arena. Consequently, the military pressurizes the civilian governments to heed to its demands. This pressure may result to a military coup, especially when the military feels that the state does not meet its demands. They can only protect themselves by taking over the leadership of the country. Thus, the attachment of the military to political activities has caused numerous coups in Africa (Edgerton 2004, p. 144). Other notable causes of military coups in Africa include the probable threats from civil regimes. These threats interfere with the welfare of the military; they may include restrictions in the autonomy of the army and cuts in the defence budget. For example, the Gambian coup of 1994 resulted from problems to do with barrack food and accommodation. In addition, the military complained of not getting pay while in Liberia for peacekeeping. They overthrew President Dawda Jawara, who had served for twenty-nine years. Similarly, the 1968 coup in Mali resulted from President Modibo Keita’s decision to establish a separate unit for the Special Forces (Collins 2008, p. 230). Foreign intervention from western nations has also contributed to the numerous coups witnessed in Africa. Although internal conditions have contributed to coups, international agents have also played a critical role in the perpetuation of the coups. For example, British troops intervened in quelling mutinies in East Africa in the years after independence. Moreover, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States was also actively involved in several African wars (Assensoh & Alex-Assensoh 2001, p. 64). France has also involved itself in African politics; it has supported several coups while its influence has defeated others. For example, the 1979 invasion and military overthrow of the Central African Republic emperor, Bokasa, received french support. On the other hand, the French restored the government of Gabon leader Leon M’ba after the military had ousted it in a 1964 coup. Western intervention in African politics is widespread; it has led to wars in the continent. Conclusion In conclusion, Africa has witnessed numerous coups, which emanate from factors that are general all over the continent. Leadership problems, economic hardships, ethnicity, and government involvement in activities of the military have caused the rise of military regimes. Military coups happen as an attempt to restore patriotism and end the poor leadership of civilian leaders. In addition, international forces may instigate military coups in Africa. Western nations, among them the United States, Britain, and France have had a role to play in the numerous coups that have happened in Africa. Interference in the autonomy of the military has considerably triggered a number of African military coups. Although coups happen as a patriotic duty of the army to protect the nation, military regimes have encountered endless problems. They have turned out to be more oppressive, corrupt, and inefficient than the civilian governments they oust from power. It becomes obviously difficult for military leaders to enhance economic development after a military coup. The problems in execution of leadership have led to economic hardships after a military takeover. For example, the 1971 military coup in Uganda brought considerable economic hardships such as inflation. Similarly, the rulership of Muammar Gaddafi came to a dramatic end following months of endless demonstrations in Libya. Thus, the numerous coups that have happened in Africa result from a multiplicity of factors common to the entire continent. References List Assensoh, B. A. & Alex-Assensoh, M. Y. (2001). African military history and politics: coups and ideological incursions, 1900-present. New York, Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 62-70. Baynham, S. (1986). Military power and politics in black Africa. London, Routledge. pp. 38-45. Collins, O. R. (2008). Problems in the history of modern Africa, Volume 3. Washington, D. C., Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 228-231. Edgerton, R. (2004). Africa's Armies: From Honor to Infamy. New York, Basic Books. pp. 141-145. Falola, T. (2002). Key events in African history: a reference guide.New York, Greenwood Publishing. pp. 235-240. Kieh, K. G. & Agbese, O. P. (2004). The military and politics in Africa: from engagement to democratic and constitutional control. Burlington, Ashgate Publishing. pp. 19-26. Onwumechili, C. (1998). African democratization and military coups.New York, Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 5-12. Thomson, A. (2010). An Introduction to African Politics, 3rd edition. New York, Taylor & Francis. pp. 134-146. Read More