Rome Was Not Built in a Single Day - Term Paper Example

?Introduction The saying that Rome was not built in a single day aptly captures the enormous influence that the Roman civilization has had in the past and in the modern societies. In the course of human development, Roman civilization is perhaps the most influential of all and its effects are prevalent in virtually all realms of human existence. Some of the greatest areas of influence include paintings, sculpturing and other forms of arts in addition to engineering, science and mathematics. Moreover, most of the current political and governance structures borrow heavily from the Roman law and practice. This paper examines the influence of roman civilization on the contemporary society, with focus on engineering, science, mathematics, science and politics. The Roman Empire is the hallmark of Roman civilization and it spread across three continents. The continents included parts of the current Europe, Africa and Asia. The vastness of the empire and its longevity facilitated its widespread influence across the globe. According to Kagan et al (2003), the Western Roman Empire lasted for 1101 years, from 625BC to AD 476. The eastern Roman Empire lasted up to AD 1432. In total, the entire Roman Empire lasted a remarkable 2078 years (Kagan et al, 2003). Comparing it with United States and the significant influence that the country has had in the modern society for a period of less than 250 years, it is apparent Roman Empire had tremendous impact in the world. Before investigating the contribution of the empire to the modern society, it important to examine its salient features. Roman Empire had a strong military organization that played a critical role in acquisition of larger territories and maintaining absolute loyalty to the emperor. In a period where armies were armed with rudimentary weapons such as spears, swords and shields, the Roman military displayed high level of organization and spirit that ensured success in virtually all battles they were engaged in. According to Rogers (2010), Hellenistic philosophy and roman stoicism played a critical role in maintaining military discipline especially in challenging battles. As their territories expanded, the Romans exerted their influence, bringing with them their culture and language. Latin was the official language of the Romans and after acquisition of larger territories; it was adapted in the entire empire. However, the language later developed and differentiated into two namely vulgar and classical Latin (Kagan, et al, 2003). Classical Latin became the official language for use in academics while Vulgar Latin later evolved due to its fluidity to give raise to various languages. Some of the languages that originated from Vulgar Latin include Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian and Italian among others (Rogers, 2010). Although Latin was the official language in the empire, the eastern part remained under heavy influence of the Greek language. Kagan et al (2003) attributed the widespread use of Greek in the empire to strong historical ties between Rome and Greece. Greece remained an influential part of Roman Empire in the entire period of the civilization. Kagan et al (2003) argues that while Greeks were popular thinkers, the Roman were doers and practical individuals. The relationship between Greece and the Romans played a crucial role in the stimulating development of science, engineering, mathematics and other technologies in the Roman Empire. The natural character of the Romans is another unique trait that determined the progress of the empire. According to Rogers (2010), Romans were competent at adapting, preserving, applying and disseminating information and technology. This trait enabled them to adapt technology from Greek, who had a rich history of philosophy, science, medicine, and art among other important traditions. Hence, Romans were practical people who applied the technology and information from their Greek counterparts to develop their empire, while Greeks were the innovators. For this reason, Rogers (2010) argues that Romans did not develop original philosophical theories and they adapted Greeks systems to address their particular needs. Some of the most prominent ethical Greek philosophies adapted by Romans included Epicureanism and stoicism. These ethical philosophies were applied in different circumstances that the Roman Empire was undergoing. According to Kagan et al (2003) Epicureanism was appropriate philosophy during difficult times such war and during trying times when people were facing uncertain future. The philosophy provided comfort because it was founded on the believe that suffering would ultimately result into happiness. Hence, during difficult periods, Romans believed that freeing their bodies from pain and the fear of death would make them attain happiness. This philosophy became important to the development of the empire because it inculcated a sense of self-sacrifice, courage and determination to succeed in any given undertaking (Kagan et al, 2003). Stoicism another philosophy of Greek origin was quite popular among the roman rulers. The ideology maintained that the universe is under control of some power that determines its operations. In relation to the ideology, the powers include world soul, fortune, reason and God (Boeree, 2001). Stoicism implied that man did not play an active role in controlling the universe. Hence, he should submit himself to every event that befalls him in the course of life and accept it stoically (Boeree, 2001). This philosophy played a critical role in establishing various concepts in the Roman law , including the law of brotherhood of men, the law of nature and the concept of justice denoting that man is innocent until proven guilty (Kagan, et al 2003). The rulers in the empire emphasized roman stoicism among the population to promote just life, dedication to duty, courage to face adversity and service to humankind (Rogers, 2010). These inherent roman traits and the influence of the Greek played a critical role in development of diverse artistic, scientific, mathematical and engineering technologies that have been passed up to the current times. In mathematics, the roman civilization developed several important concepts that are in application up to date. According to Katz (1998), Euclid a Greek mathematician from Alexandria played a critical role in the development of the discipline after Alexandria became part of the Roman Empire. Under the influence of Euclid, the region produced some of the finest mathematicians that left a lasting impression up to date. Invention of trigonometry and geometry is perhaps one of the most remarkable mathematical developments that originated from the Roman Empire. Application of trigonometry on Greek geometric models enabled early astronomers to establish or make numerical calculations about celestial bodies. This resulted to formulation of circular diagrams depicting orbits of various celestial objects (Katz, 1998). From these circular diagrams, various chords dividing the circle into various segments emerged which eventually resulted to formulation mathematical formula for calculating the circumference, area and other aspects of circular objects (Anaboe, 1975). Geometry and trigonometry are important components of modern mathematics. Other important mathematical contributions from Roman civilization include formulation of a solution for indeterminate equations a discovery made by Diophantus in the third century. This discovery also initiated the practice of using symbols in mathematical calculations rather using words. In pure mathematics, Anaboe (1975) noted that Nichomachus of Gerasa made valuable contribution in establishing number theory. Roman civilization played a major role in development of engineering technology, especially in the building and construction industries. According to Rogers (2010), Romans discovered concrete, one of the major developments that transformed the building and construction of house, roads and other infrastructures. Romans poured the concrete in moulds that enabled them design various structural components for roads, bridges, buildings, dams, reservoirs and shipping harbors (Rogers, 2010). Using concrete and sound engineering technology, the Romans built thousands of miles of roads, connecting various cities within the empire. They were also the first to design milestones to show distances between nearest cities along the roads. Aqueducts are other important contribution of the Romans in the engineering industry (Kagan et al, 2003). According to Kagan et al (2003), the structures were built to supply residents of the cities with water from springs and other sources. The aqueducts were mostly built underground but in places where underground construction was impossible, they were installed above the surface. Lead pipes were then installed in the aqueducts to carry the water. One of the most remarkable characteristics of the ducts was that they operated without using water pumps. Other important engineering contribution included construction of stone arches, barrel and cross vaults in addition to concrete domes. These engineering applications were used in construction of temples, theaters, roads, bridges, cities and other infrastructures some of which are used up to date (Rogers, 2010). In politics, the Roman Empire contributed several important theories that are applied in the modern democracies. Some of the theories include the social contract theory, popular sovereignty and the principal that law must be the foundation of establishing any government. The social contract theory holds that a government is formed from voluntary consent of the citizens. The principle of popular sovereignty declares that the power to govern resides upon the people and hence in democratic societies, this principle respects the decision of the majority people (Kagan et al, 2003pp 258-265). The popular candidates who gain the majority support are ultimately empowered to exercise the wishes of the people in the government. In addition, the Roman Empire emphasized on the unity and order within the governing body. According to Kagan et al (2003), these ideologies formed the foundation of the modern political structure of European countries that were later adopted by other countries around the globe. The modern governing structures where countries are divided into administrative units such as counties and provinces originate from the Roman tradition. Moreover, the governing and organization of the modern religious organizations especially the church borrows heavily from the Roman Empire from which the administrative units and the laws were designed (Kagan et al 2003). The Roman law is probably one of the greatest contributions of the empire to the modern societies. According to Wieacker (1981, p279), Roman law is the foundation of law codes of several European and Latin American countries. These include Scotland, Italy, France, Argentina, Brazil and other countries in South America. The English law, which is applied in countries such as United States, originates from roman legal philosophies. Moreover, the roman legal principles have tremendous influence on the formulation of the Canon Law that governs the Roman Catholic Church (Rogers, 2010). Other prominent legal systems including the international law are founded on roman legal principles. According to Rogers (2010), the Roman law in the empire evolved gradually for a period of about a thousand years. In the formative stages on the empire, the law was not written and it had immense religious influence. The law was written in the law of twelve tables in the 5th century BC and in the following period of the empire; it was expanded by legislation to meet the emerging needs. The Roman law was finally codified and conserved for future generations in 6th century (Wieacker, 1981, p268). Conclusion Roman Empire made tremendous contribution in development of modern science, especially in the disciplines of engineering, mathematics, astronomy and navigation. The Roman civilization made valuable contribution in the development of modern society, ranging from political and social organizations, to academic and technological applications. Although the Greek played a crucial role in innovating some of these technologies, the pragmatic nature of the Romans ensured the translation and application of the ideas and theories in real life situations. References Anaboe, A.(1975). Episodes from the early history of mathematics. New York: Mathematical Association of America. Boeree, G. (2001). The Philosophies and Religions of the Roman Empire. Retrieved on 2 November 2011 from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/romanempire.html. Kagan, D. et al. (2003). The western heritage. Combined 8th ed. New York: Prentice Hall. Katz, V. (1998). A history of mathematics: An introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Addison Wesley. Rogers, P. (2010). Aspects of western civilization: Problem and sources in history. 7th ed. New York: Prentice Hall. Wieacker, F. (1981). The importance of Roman law for western civilization and western legal thought. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 4(2): pp 250-282. Accessed on 3 November, 2011 from http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol4/iss2/2 The Philosophies and Religions of the Roman Empire Dr. C. George Boeree The influences of ancient Rome on subsequent and even contemporary culture are multivalent, especially in the areas of political life and governance, language, and law. The guiding principles of the early Roman republic were civic virtues that have been passed down, in theory at least, in all societies that foreground the desire to protect themselves from the possibilities of dictatorship and any abuse of power. With an emphasis on self-sacrifice for the public good and on the equal treatment of all citizens, the Roman's developed what has come to be known as a system of an annual rotation of the consul body that effectively comprised the head of state. Initially, Roman culture was, like almost all others of the day, was ruled by a monarch whose power was ostensibly near-absolute in political matters and even more so when it came to making decisions pertaining to military matters." The Romans built thousands of miles of roads. All of these roads connected the Roman Empire. The Romans invented the milestone. These gave the mileage to the nearest large city. The Empire Naturally the most obvious achievement of the Romans was their vast empire, which spread over three continents. It lasted for a long, long time. From 625 BC to AD 476 = 1101 years! - And if one includes the eastern Roman empire which lasted until AD 1453 it would even be 2078 years! In comparison the United States of America only exists since 1776 - less than 250 years. The Roman Army The Romans achieved world fame with their incredible army. It defeated pretty much everybody. The Roman Legion was perhaps the most powerful army ever. Sure, they didn't have airplanes, tanks and battleships like today. But they were capable of defeating armies far larger than themselves, despite being equipped with the same basic weapons: shields, spears and swords. Founding Fathers of many Cities Europe would not be the same without the Romans. All over the continent they founded cities which still stand today. The great city of London for example, the capital of the United Kingdom, was founded by the Romans under the name Londinium. Also the great German city of Cologne is Roman (Colonia Agrippina). In fact, the list of towns and cities founded by the Romans seems endless. The great Builders of Old No civilization is so identified with constructing and building things (see also The great Builders), than the Romans. Aqueducts, roads, baths, walls, theatres, temples, arches, cities, palaces... They built a world from which later peoples still benefitted for a long time to come. Some of their old roads are even still in use today. So too, some of their great amphitheatres. Alphabet The Roman alphabet is what most of us still use today in the western world. We have added a few letters to it, like W, but it is much still the same alphabet used by the Romans. Their numerals are not any longer in every day use. It is Arabic numbers we use today. But for inscriptions on public buildings and some other things Roman numerals are still sometimes used. The Twelve Tables and the Justinian Code Roman law was indeed a great institution. They developed many of the ideas of justice which we today take for granted. Already in 451 BC they created basic laws which governed them all, laying down what one could and could not do. They wrote them down on twelve plates made of bronze, which became known as the Twelve Tables. These were the first examples of written law. Much later a great Roman emperor of Constantinople, Justinian, refined many of the laws of the day and collected them all into one work. This is known as the Justinian Code and it was completed in AD 529. These laws form the basis of all today's justice systems in the western world. The Romans were noted for many achievements in the area of government and law. For instance, they initiated a form of representative government and a division of power among government branches. Even though many modern political and judicial processes come from the Romans, the Athenians did originate one political process used in the United States today earlier than the Romans The political process in the mystery is the voting process. Originally used in Athens, the Romans adapted the voting procedures represented by the two objects in the mystery. The object at the left is a voting vase, which was used to hold the “ballots” after the Roman Assemblymen voted. The object at the right is a Roman ballot. Made of heavy wax, the ballot contained the names of the two contenders for political office (note the names across the top of the ring). After hearing the two contenders speak, each Assemblyman would mark out the name of the candidate he did not want, thus leaving the name of his choice across the top. After the ballots were cast, the vase was emptied and the votes counted to determine the winner. Candidates had to make their own speeches. Nothing precluded having another person write the speech for the candidate, but rules prohibited anyone other than the candidate from delivering the speech before the gathered Assemblymen. Other Roman voting procedures included the use of two disks (one with a hollow center and one with a solid center). A hollow disk meant a negative “NO” vote, while the solid center meant a “YES” vote on the issues involving legislative matters. Read More