The Impact of the Two World Wars on Black America - Essay Example

? THE IMPACT OF THE TWO WORLD WARS ON BLACK AMERICA by The Impact of the Two World Wars on Black America Introduction Racism and segregation transcend the entire history of democracy and statehood in America. Since the first years of the American state, racism and segregation had been the most serious political and social challenges faced by citizens. The Civil War led to the abolition of racism in the American continent, giving millions of Black some hope to re-establish themselves in the American society. Those hopes were soon dissolved by the growing antagonism between Black and White citizens. Racial antagonism in America became a serious barrier to achieving America’s social and military goals during the two World Wars. The First World War did not reduce but, on the contrary, increased racial opposition between white and African-American citizens. Racial tensions were accompanied by serious economic and social controversies. At the beginning of the Second World War, military institutions and forces in America continued to reflect racial tendencies in society, refusing to willingly accept Black soldiers. Despite those controversies, WWII became the turning point in the development of new racial relations in America. Changes in military structures, the rise in racial awareness, and wartime intercultural education shaped the ground for restructuring the entire system of racial relations in contemporary American state. WWI and racism in America World War I was the time when the lives of African-Americans became virtually unbearable. That was also when racism and racial antagonism became serious barriers to effective military action in America. “World War I brought the American South to the brink of momentous change, with the sense of energy and opportunity that accompanied mobilization on the home front” (Hudson 2009, p.3). The beginning of WWI was also the time when progressive movements in America worked to improve the lives of citizens, through educational restructuring, woman suffrage, and other middle-class reforms (Hudson 2009). Unfortunately, those reforms had little to no effects on the quality of racial relations. On the contrary, WWI exposed and intensified the conflicts between Blacks and Whites. The confrontation was equally conscious and deliberate (Hudson 2009). Failure to engage Black citizens in military service distorted the picture of citizenship in America and reduced its chances to ensure loyal service (Lentz-Smith 2009). White supremacy before and during WWI were both tragic and inevitable. Blacks had little opportunity to change their situation to the better. It would be fair to say that WWI did not change the place and position of Blacks in America; moreover, it deepened the conflicts between Blacks and Whites, leading to the subsequent reaffirmation of white supremacy at all levels of the country’s social hierarchy. Davis (2008) tells the story of an African American soldier getting back home after the end of WWI. An exception rather than the rule, Blacks’ involvement in military actions was a continued source of controversy. More serious were the consequences of Blacks’ participation in the military: upon his return to Blakely, Georgia, the young soldier was met by a group of white men and forced to put off his uniform (Davis 2008). He was also threatened not to wear the uniform in public (Davis 2008). However, the young man ignored the threat and, for this reason, was lynched by a mob (Davis 2008). Lynching had to send an explicit message to all African American soldiers throughout the state: that they sacrificed their lives and health to protect the liberty of their people would not lead to racial equality (Sollors 1996). The lynched soldier became the hero of African American literature during the 1930s, but even the popularization of the soldier’s image could not change the situation. WWI further intensified the conflicts between African-Americans and the white majority. Lynching was just one example of open racial discrimination in America after WWI. Yet, lynching best illustrates Black’s inferior position in America after WWI, since lynching has long been embedded into the nation’s racial psyche (Taylor 1979). Lynching as an act of violence has far-reaching implications for understanding the nature of racism in America: it is a spectacle, whose main goal is to re-affirm the purity of the white race and personify the fears of black animalism (Davis 2008). WWI was one of the most serious factors of increased racial tensions in post-war America. Thousands of African-Americans moved to the North, looking for better life and employment opportunities (Davis 2008). Ku Klux Klan was revived (Davis 2008). All attempts to integrate Black citizens into the national mobilization efforts were futile (Davis 2008). The period of the First World War sublimated most racial tensions, which re-emerged as thousands of Black and White soldiers were coming back home (Davis 2008). The beginning of 1919 was marked with a number of race riots across several American states, including Chicago and Arkansas; every time several African-Americans were killed, and every time African-Americans fought for their ideals, challenging the established racial order (Davis 2008). That was when the seeds of the National Negro Movement were planted, giving rise to a series of national blows against inequity and racism. The First World War had been blind to the issues of racism and antagonism in America, but it is during the war that African-American soldiers realized the danger of the white supremacy and the value of liberty. World War I showed that racial equity and liberty were worth collective and personal sacrifice (Davis 2008). It is no wonder that Black soldiers became the most popular image of the post-war anti-racial campaigns. Military service had to make an unambiguous case for equality, inclusion and citizenship (Davis 2008). However, it failed its mission. Moreover, cases of Black soldiers’ lynching after the war exposed the overall hypocrisy of American participation in WWI and re-established the hidden dangers of American brutality and racism (Davis 2008). Surprisingly or not, those antagonistic moods extended to cover most of the WWII period, raising public concerns about sustained racial inequality in the American society. Racism and WWII: A Case for Equality? The situation during WWII did not differ much from the discrimination and inequity most African Americans had experienced during and immediately after WWI. Simultaneously, discrimination against Blacks gradually moved to the new, ‘veiled’ realm, creating the false atmosphere of equity and balance in the American society. Racial policies formulated during the WWI continued to persist. A number of themes help to understand the position most Blacks in America occupied before and during WWII. To begin with, WWII once again exposed the existing antagonism between Blacks and whites. American Air Forces and other military organizations refused to willingly accept black soldiers (Osur 1977). Even if mobilization among African-Americans was necessary for the survival of the U.S. Army in WWII, the American Air Forces (AAF) could not take decisions against the policies and standards of performance imposed on them by the War Department (Osur 1977). Air Forces in America had been totally excluded “for over two decades before they were permitted to enter, and then use only reluctantly” (Osur 1977, p.1). The decision to let Black soldiers enter the AAF was the result of pressure exerted by Congress on the War Department and, then, on the AAF (Osur 1977). Yet, even then, few Blacks were allowed to enter the military ranks in America. WWII could not change much in the structure of racial relations in America, as long as the War Department leadership emphasized the importance of segregation and its efficiency in building race relations among the military (Osur 1977). In the context of both World Wars, the ‘separate-but-equal’ policies reflected the atmosphere of racism and antagonism that dominated the country’s racial landscape (Osur 1977). The policy led to unnecessary costs, needed to maintain separate facilities for black soldiers (Hale 1999). Not equity but cost-efficiency became the principal reason why AAF and other military organizations finally opened their doors to Blacks. Cost problems were further supplemented by regular protests and riots on the side of Blacks, who did not want to accept their inferior social position in the Army. The Army continued to defend the validity of its segregation policies, but discriminatory treatment also caused annoyance and frustration (Osur 1977). Segregated army could not be effective, and only by 1943 did the War Department realize the hidden dangers of segregation and second-class citizenship. That was when gradual improvements started to take place, but before 1943, Black soldiers and citizens in America had been subjected to various forms of discrimination, even in blood donor services. The American Red Cross Blood Service was one of the most remarkable achievements during WWII in America (Guglielmo 2010). All blood donor operations were run jointly by the Red Cross and the military (Guglielmo 2010). By the end of the Second World War, almost 7 million of volunteers had donated their blood to the service (Guglielmo 2010). Thousands of lives were saved with the help of the donor service (Hurd 1959). More important was the fact that the creation of the national blood donor service was celebrated as something that reaffirmed American pursuit for democracy and representativeness (Guglielmo 2010). Yet, not everyone knows that the Red Cross Donor Service first excluded all African American donors (Guglielmo 2010). Only after a series of mass protests and because the demand for blood was constantly growing, the Red Cross donor service decided to accept African-American donors, but only on a segregated basis (Guglielmo 2010). Those segregation policies affecting blood donors were in place during the war and several years after the war (Guglielmo 2010). As a result, the Second World War did not simply leave American Blacks in the midst of the discrimination crisis but also added new, unimaginable forms of racial discrimination. Blacks could not participate in war. They could not enter Air Forces. They could not even donate their blood to save the lives of other soldiers! Nonetheless, the situation was not as bad as it had been during WWI. Two essential changes during WWII created a foundation for cautious optimism about the future of racial equality in America. First, a dramatic change in racial policies within the War Department took place in 1943: following the resignation of one of the military leaders, the AAF finally recognized there was no definite reason not to employ Negro Service Pilots (Osur 1977). The AAF also expressed its opinion regarding previous segregation policies: even if the military had been skeptical about Blacks’ ability to contribute to the national army, the AAF had not intended to discriminate against African-Americans because of their race (Osur 1977). That was probably how the AAF tried to apologize for its failure to resolve the existing racial controversies more effectively; simultaneously, 1943 became the turning point in the development of the new racial consciousness. Since then, no military training school was allowed to conduct segregated training (Osur 1977). Black trainees would be allowed to go to the same classes and eat from the same hails with the whites (Osur 1977). Another change took place in the educational field. During WWII, intercultural education became one of the most important factors of positive social change in the United States’ racial relations. Teachers in American schools taught students the basics of folklife, history, and the contributions made by minority groups to American life (Burkholder 2010). Furthermore, students learned to re-define race in scientific terms, to avoid racial egalitarianism and discrimination in their lives (Burkholder 2010; Johnson 2010). African American and Jewish organizations supported public schools, as the latter expanded their curriculums to include other intercultural subjects (Burkholder 2010). Teachers and academics were equally enthusiastic about curriculum changes. The main goal of classroom intercultural education was to ensure the racial unity of America and reduce the risks of protests and riots among minorities (Theoharis 2001). Teachers published their own accounts of racial tolerance, to provide new models of professional teaching (Burkholder 2010). Needless to say, those changes alone could not ensure rapid improvements in relations among Blacks and Whites. Years would pass before Blacks felt whole and complete in the American society. The two world wars might not have changed the position and power of Blacks in America, but they created a foundation and sped up the restructuring the entire system of racial relations in contemporary America. Conclusion The two World Wars greatly affected the lives and social position of Blacks in America. Changes in military structures, the rise in racial awareness, and wartime intercultural education shaped the ground for restructuring the entire system of racial relations in contemporary American state. After the First World War, racial antagonism in America intensified. Lynching grew further embedded into America’s racial psyche. African American soldiers faced discrimination and open abuse. At the beginning of WWII black soldiers were denied an opportunity to enter the army. Red Cross donor organizations did not allow African Americans to contribute their blood. WWII did not merely segregate Blacks but gave rise to new forms of discrimination. Yet, 1943 became the turning point in the development of new racial consciousness. New military policies and intercultural education had to become essential factors of positive social change in the United States. All those changes, however, raise the question of who (or what) was primarily responsible for the discussed changes in racial relations in America. That the two World Wars gave an impetus to changes in relations between Blacks and Whites is difficult to deny. However, it is also clear that World Wars by themselves did little to improve African Americans’ social position. Everything Blacks managed to achieve in America was because they were not willing to reconcile with white supremacy. Protests and mass demonstrations causing annoyance and frustration gave African Americans significant advantage in their fight for self-identification. The two World Wars further created conditions needed to meet the goal of racial equity in the short and long run. References Burkholder, Z 2010, ‘From forced tolerance to forced busing: Wartime intercultural education and the rise of black educational activism in Boston’, Harvard Educational Review, vol.80, no.3, pp.293-326. Davis, DA 2008, ‘Not only war is hell: World War I and African American lynching narratives’, African American Review, vol.42, no.3, pp.477-491. Guglielmo, TA 2010, ‘Red Cross, double cross’: Race and America’s World War II-era blood donor service’, The Journal of American History, vol.97, no.1, pp.63-90. Hale, G 1999, Making whiteness: The culture of segregation in the South, 1890-1940, New York: Vintage. Hudson, JG 2009, Entangled by white supremacy: Reform in World War I-era South Carolina, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Hurd, C 1959, The compact history of the American Red Cross, New York: New York Press. 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