Major Challenges along Silk Route - Essay Example

 Major Challenges along Silk Route The Silk Routes holds 2,000-year history of human association and interaction from Eastern and Western civilizations. Silk Roads has been well-travelled network of routes which proved to be a bridge for Chinese merchants to reach Middle Eastern, European, and Central Asian traders. Xian, known as Chang’An in ancient times, is the geographical and historical origin of the Silk Roads. In ancient times, Chinese traders didn’t travel beyond their home markets as often to sell silk or porcelain (McGregor, 2011). Chinese traders used to meet foreign traders who arrive at Chang’An and sell. Central Asian traders reached Chinese market after travelling through Rocky Mountains and blistering deserts. They travelled in groups of caravans in order to survive the travel difficulties, weather conditions, and thieves. After getting Chinese commodities, they padded back on Silk Road in order to deliver those goods through Persia and Syria and finally, the route ends at Mediterranean Coast. At the end, the goods were shipped to be sailed to Rome and Greece and rest of the Europe in times to come (McGregor, 2011). Fewkes(2009,p.38) mentions that Chinese traders travelled to eastern Europe from China, it implies that even in early days, the trade was not one-sided. This paper analyses the major challenges and opportunities that international traders have met alongside Silk Routes from ancient times. 1. Overland Routes Trading Routes are named after Silk because of massive amounts of silk traded to Europe from China. The term Silk Road or die Seidenstrasse was introduced by German explorer, Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen (Ma, 1998, p.2). Western term, the ‘Silk Road’ is ambiguous to some extent. In fact, there was no single passage taken for what is known as Silk Road. After crossing Central Asia, different passages developed which passed through different oasis arrangements. However, all routes originated from capital in Changan and led to Gansu corridor, and finally reached Dunhuang in the skirts of the Taklimakan (Wild 1992). Silk route was not for the sole purpose of trading silk(Wild,1992).However, silk was the most important commodity that traders carried, in addition to spices, porcelain, textiles, precarious metals, and stones. Moreover, Silk Route proved to be a significant avenue for the exchange of ideas, cultures, and religions. Some of the primary ideas and technology travelled to the world through Silk Route, such as, paper making technology, printing, and gunpowder production are a few to name. Explorers, migrants, traders, soldiers, refugees, and pilgrims contributed to Silk Routes’ extensive cross-continental exchange through their religion, culture, animals, flowers, vegetables, plants, herbs, fruits, and diseases as well (Ma, 1998, pp.1-2).It is not surprising that Silk Road was considered to be the ‘melting pot,’ and ‘the lifeline of the Eurasian Continent’ (Franck and Brownstone 1986; Werblowsky 1988 cited in Ma, 1998, p.2).Routes expansion due to apparently hostile conditions, such as, war between tribes and robbery, Silk routes reached to India, Tibet, Iraq, and Russia(today’s). Moreover, it merged into previously established routes, such as, spice routes with India (Rowan, 2006). 2. Silk Sea Route Sea route is considered to be another Silk Route which links South China Sea to Indian Ocean and to Mediterranean through both Persian Gulf and Red Sea route. Sea route served the same purpose for silk trade as overland route. In ancient times, overland or sea routes were alternate routes. Over a period of time, sea routes didn’t prove more efficient due to primitive ships, inefficient navigational tools, and lack of geographical knowledge. Seafarers used to stay close to the shorelines; therefore, they cover very small distances (Needham and Wang, 1954, pp.174-80). The rise of Islam played crucial role in the development of overland and sea Silk Route. Muslim ship masters pervaded into not only Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia, but also reached Japan and Korea (Needham and Wang, 1954, p.179). Increasing pressures from Islamic and other powers in the North-western frontier forced China’s external trade towards Japan, Southeast Asia, and Indian Ocean (Chen and Wu, 1981; Li, M.-W. 1991 cited in Ma, 1998, p.11). 3. Major Problems of Traders It seems unbelievable when we realize the difficulties involved in trading alongside the world’s most complex and difficult terrain in order to provide for the rich to live a luxurious life. There were numerous commodities traded during these travels. Caravans moving towards China were loaded with ivory, gold, silver, glass, and precious gems. Even exotic foods, such as, pomegranates and carrots were traded to China. Similarly, China exported jade, bronze, iron, porcelain, and silk (Rowan, 2006). 3.1 Geographical Conditions The region isolating China from Europe is not the most favourable to promote such level of trade. Most of the part is consisted of Taklimakan desert which is one of the most adverse environments on earth. Weather conditions are extreme with little vegetation, and almost no rainfall. Sandstorms are common and have engulfed countless lives since its existence. Strength of the windstorm and nature of the surface make it more dangerous. Though local people have huge respect for this “Land of Death,” only few travellers said well about this region in the past. A few roads pass through this vast region, caravans skirted the edges of this region from one oasis to another throughout ancient times. Climate has always been harsh; in summers, the day time temperature is in 40s and greater than 50 degree Celsius frequently measures in the sub-sea-level basin of Turfan. On the other hand, in winters, the temperatures dip below -20 degrees. Temperatures are high in day time, but drop sharply after dusk. Moreover, Taklimakan desert has much sparse water resources (Wild, 1992). Such severe environmental conditions posed great threats to traders from ancient times. Other regions surrounding Taklimakan were equally dangerous. To the northeast, there lies Gobi desert with equally hostile climate. On other three sides, there are highest mountains in the world: Himalaya, Karakorum, and Kunlun ranges. Only few icy, but dangerously narrow and difficult passes cross the region. Most of these passes are more than 5000 meters in altitude, with deep and steep side valleys. North ranges, Tianshan and Pamir are comparatively green and low, however, passes crossing these ranges have enormous problems for the travelers and traders in ancient times. However, a comparatively easier entering point is along the ‘Gansu Corridor’ while entering the region from east (Wild, 1992).The monk Faxian travelled Silk Road in 4th century and he took the less travelled route through the Tsaidam and Tarim regions( Stockwell,2002,p.23). In a description, he stated that, “The only road-signs are the skeletons of the dead. Wherever they life, there lies the road to India” (cited in Imperial Tours, n.d.). Despite the fact that camels could travel nearly 20 miles in six hours without any problem, entire trip from China to Europe was extended on over 5,000 miles, and took more than a year and a half (Rossabi, 1990, p.356).One attendant could handle about six camels at a time. A stringed camel was guided by two men, one at front and the other at rear. Moreover, a camel could carry nearly 300-500 pounds of commodities (McNeill, 1987, p.1115).         Silk trade was the last amongst other luxury commodities, such as, porcelain, textile, spices, and precious metals, that switched to extensive sea routes from land routes(Abu-Lughod 1989;Li,M.-W. 1991;Steensgaard 1973 cited in Ma,1998,p.26).Silk trade was bounded to land routes because of its light weight, durability, and ease of storage and packaging(Ma,1998,p.26).However, there were other factors which pushed silk trade from land routes to sea routes. 3.2 Lack of market information         According to Steensgaard (1973), it was more of the trade of peddlers that involved selling and buying small quantities throughout their continuous travel from one market to the other. The trade scale was small, slow, and commodities reached the end user after passing through a chain of intermediaries. Peddling nature of trade refers to the traders’ ignorance or lack of advance information about their target market irrespective of the considerable volumes of goods. Markets were isolated from one another; therefore, price differentials were often substantially high. Such disparity exists in all the commercial centres even those which are located on moderate distances. High premia were required in order to compensate the traders for the risk and uncertainty involved in this trade (cited in Ma, 1998, p.26-28). 3.3. Issues with Local Culture Just like contemporary traders, ancient times traders had problems with local foods and foreign languages. They had to face difficulty with the rules that prohibit their native dress code, or require permits to enter the city. The permits are granted by official authorities that clarify their needs in the city, and assurance that they didn't present any menace (Hays, 2010). 3.4. Protection Issues Along Silk Routes’ reachable and less hazardous sides, traders often faced threats of robbery. It is evident that caravans carrying such concentration of wealth were open invitation to robbery. The situation becomes even worse because these caravans move forward plodding through different regions and sometimes the territories under uncertain political authorities (Ma, 1998, p.27).In order to avoid such situations, preying bandits, and nomadic inhabitants, caravans either have to travel in a large army of escorts or they travelled in large groups of caravans. In the later situation, however, they become even more vulnerable and easy targets for robberies. Furthermore, lacking knowledge and language skills led to poor communication between travellers and local tribes and frequently resulted into misunderstandings and robberies. Primary reason of Silk Road expansion into a vast network of different routes is the individual trader who travelled more hostile and less inhibited routes in order to lessen the risks of robbery (Rowan, 2006). 3.5. High Protection Cost Being such an inviting option for robbers, protecting caravans became merchants’ first priority. However, these peddling traders had to pay high costs of protection. These costs include: risk of robbers’ attack; customs duties; and extortion by local authorities. Moreover, these costs were unpredictable (Steensgaars, 1973 cited in Ma, 1998, p.27).Political upheaval and wars between neighbouring countries alongside the Silk Route had huge impact on trade and triggered the development of alternative criss-cross network of routes (Rowan, 2006). Steensgaars (1973) analysed merchants’ travel accounts and letters and concluded that unpredictable protection costs led to not only irregular supply, but also fierce and short-term price fluctuations in overland silk market. Protection costs also exceeded the transportation costs in the final cost of the goods (cited in Ma, 1998, p.27). 3.6. Political Upheaval Different phases of silk trade were closely associated with the rise and fall of different political empires. Trade had always flourished under the patronage of great central empires, such as, Han and Tang China, Mongols, Rome, Safavid Persia, and Russia. These empires provided protection against brigandage and robbery. They built and maintained roads for smooth flow of trading process and levied predictable custom taxes in order to facilitate traders (Ma, 1998, p.27). Silk traders found substantial progress during Han dynasty; however, it was Tang dynasty in which silk trade reached its peak. During this era, Changan developed into a big cosmopolitan city. After Tang dynasty, silk route trade decreases substantially due to increasing robberies from the neighbouring bandit tribes. During Mongol empire in 13th century CE, the trade flourished again. However, it was a short-term boost because with the advent of Ming dynasty, trade barriers for western traders were again imposed (Hann, 2004, p.19). While trade dynamics remained stable during Han dynasty, when polities like China, Persia, Byzantium, and Islamic world were strong and stable, trade progressed extensively. These powerful empires had widespread influences which curbed plundering. Such control can clash between agriculturists and mounted nomads who attacked their settlements. In addition, these regimes lessen the burden of extortionate intermediary taxes and transit fees which were imposed by the opportunist rulers of oasis city states along the Silk Route. During progressive period, oasis cities turned into small kingdoms due to trade brought wealth and prosperity. These cities expanded into nearby deserts and accelerated trade related activities. These shining cities turned into ghost cities when trade declined (Major, n.d.). Local governments' greed and opportunist nature seeking wealth from the caravans passing through their cities caused the trade routes to change. Furthermore, tribal chieftains kept the neighbouring rivalries alive that influenced trade (Rowan, 2006). Considering the problems with overland route, superiority of the sea Silk Route becomes quite clear. The sea wind foe sailing was free of charge and travelled routes did not posed any threat. Land routes problems, such as, congestion and damage done to land route by frequent travels was no more an issue with sea route. Protection costs were also comparatively very less because ships crossed traversed uninhabited expenses, on the other hand, caravans moved far from populated places. Moreover, caravans concentrated wealth in a way that invited numerous plunders (McNeill, 1987, pp.1119-1123). Despite evident edge of sea route, lacking knowledge of geography, ship building, and navigational technology kept the traders from exploiting non-rival and non-exclusive attributes of open sea. Early stages of sea route trading shared many attributes of overland trading, for instance, sailing short stages, little quantities of commodities, and higher crew costs (Curtin, 1984, p.119).Maritime transport technology thrived after thirteenth century. Nautical technological progress enabled ships to sail faster and cheaper. Sea route dominated the global trade for long distance ventures in no time after the identification of an all-sea route from Europe to Asia and cross way of the Pacific (Chaunu 1996). Initially overland trade shifted to sea routes, afterwards, sea routes experienced similar threats of pirates, scurvy, and taxes. The whole scenario led to the demise of Silk Routes trade (Rowan, 2006). With the name Silk Roads, images of caravans paddling through world’s most complex network of routes appear in mind. The perceptions of caravans moving forward in forsaken deserts and heights of barren mountains are not false (Hays, 2010).Besides trading opportunities in far off lands, traders had to face innumerable difficulties while travelling along Silk Routes. Some of the major problems included: the harsh weather conditions and complex terrain; market uncertainty; robbery; political upheaval; protection costs; and government taxes and custom. However, it is evident that despite all the difficulties, traders bridged the gap between East and West by not only transferring goods, but also religions and cultures. References Chaunu, P.1996. L’expansion European due XIII au XVe Siecle. 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