What can critical theory tell us about international politics - Essay Example

?Introduction Critical theoretical examination of the society and culture remains an important aspect especially in the current international affairsand politics. Therefore, the term critical theory has been widely applied in studying international politics. According to Philips (2000), critical theory is usually associated with the Frankfurt school from where works of influential theorists including Karl Marx and Jurgen Habermas continue making an important contribution to the study of critical theory in relation to international politics. This paper expounds on the various contributions of the critical theory to international politics. According to Thompson (1990), the philosophical and historical meaning of critical theory is ambiguous and it is both narrow and wide. In its narrow aspect, the critical theory is a development that runs down from several German philosophers and sociologists of “Western Europe Marxism”, which in other terms is referred as the Frankfurt school. Marxist or Frankfurt theorists argue that the major defining characteristic of the critical theory is that it seeks liberation or emancipation of the human being (Joseph, Andras and Stomp, 2010 p 63). This includes emancipating human beings from enslaving situations and conditions. From the narrow perspective of the critical theory that is concerned with liberation of people, various theories have been developed from the perspective that examines critical theory in a much broader sense. Various factors have contributed to the emergence of these broader critical theories, but the underlying fact is that they originate from diverse social movements that are concerned with “the authority or domination of people in the contemporary societies” (Chantal 1990 p29). Therefore, in both narrow and broad perspectives, the critical theory provides a descriptive and normalising background for examining and inquiring about the society, with the objective of reducing the domination and promoting liberty of people in diverse situations. Craig (1995) presents four conditions necessary for ensuring a theory is critical enough. Firstly, the theory should” identify with and engage critically with the theorist’s current and social world, while being cognizant that the prevailing conditions do not exhaust all possibilities” (Craig, 1995 p 81) Thus, the theory should provide positive directives for social action. Secondly, the critical theory should provide significant account of both the historical and cultural circumstances affecting the individual as well as the society from which the theorists own intellectual activity relies (Craig 1995). Thirdly, critical theory should be a continuous and critical reassessment of the constitutive classes that includes the historical construction of the examined framework. Finally, a critical theory should establish an important engagement with other works seeking social explanation with intention of elucidating the strong and weak points, but also showing the logic behind their misunderstandings in addition to demonstrating the capacity to include their contributions in order to establish a firm and logical theoretical foundation (Craig, 1995 pp87-96) According to Burchill et al (2005, p68) critical theory is “self-reflective and motivated by values”. The principal objective of critical theory is to change the contemporary society from an oppressive, unjust and inhumane form into a society that respects and demonstrates justice, rationality, humanity and reconciliation (Chantal, 1990, p53). Therefore, critical theory is charged with various responsibilities that are crucial in our contemporary historical circumstances at both local and international level. Some of the roles of the critical theory include promoting and diversifying education provided in the society so that people can develop different expertise and knowledge that protects the society from the dangers of overspecialisation in a particular discipline (Thompson, 1990). Intellectually diversified individuals are capable of thinking critically about the prevailing circumstances affecting the society, which also makes it possible to devise the appropriate solutions. Critical theory plays an important role in steering humanity away from a limited or conventional approach to life. It provides numerous alternatives from which a better, and more fulfilling future of the society could be achieved or secured. Critical theory is also responsible for creating a social equilibrium between individual independence of the person and the universal harmony of the collective (Dougherty, 1997). Promoting rebellion against all types of destructive ideologies such as fascism and nationalism is the other important role of critical theory. Revolution against such ideologies enhance the creation of a free society that does not discriminate people on the grounds of race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, status, age among other discriminative and prejudicial practices (Philips, 2000). Another role of critical theory in society is promotion of ideal moral values that enhance universal cohesion and encourage establishment of a “more reasonable, humane, just and reconciled society” (Thompson, 1990, p117). According to Linklater (1999, p57), the critical theoretical interpretation of international politics is not an argument of the failings of the neoutilitarian accounts but an approach of providing important insights concerning the relationship of power to international institutions and the responsibilities of those institutions and political organisations in providing amicable solutions in the international arena. Therefore, critical theory through neorealism and neoliberalism approaches provide reflective and useful insights of establishing political regimes, their sustenance, weaknesses and eventual collapse (Burchill et al 2005). In international politics, critical theory is important because of two main conditions that characterise the global environment. Firstly, the current global situation is characterised by a situation whereby the experiences of “international politics founded on static parameters do not precisely reflect the different social dynamics and political problems facing the human polity” (Dougherty, 1997, p103). This situation is demonstrated by intensive research showing exclusion of non-governmental participants by the state oriented policies. Secondly, the modern international political structure has “fragile existence and unstable legitimacy” because important decisions are made without due consideration of their effects on minority and other marginalised groups (Evans and Newnhamn, 2003, p136). Therefore, Jarvis (2000) argues that global institutions that exclude involvement of non-governmental participants do not last for long period. In view of international politics, critical theory provides the basis for defining alternative liberating role of international relations (Linklater 1999). Various democratically established international orders, such as globalisation perpetuate power imbalances across the world. This has resulted into widespread poverty especially in least developed and developing economies, increasing disparity in material possessions between the poor and the rich, environmental degradation, incessant conflicts and divided rather than united communities. In addition, the status quo globalisation has caused more marginalisation of different societies, enhanced suspicions and intolerance in the global arena in addition to promoting the practices that contravene democratic values and human rights (Hurrel and Woods 1999). According to Habermasian discourse of international relations, non-governmental actors play a major role in the establishment of a new global order characterised by non-territorial form of political society (Jarvis, 2000). Through expansionary measures aimed at encouraging participation and open dialogue of universally acceptable norms, Dougherty (1997) argues that the normative international relations portray the liberation objectives of the critical theory. This is achieved by estimating the various forms of democracy necessary for establishing new identities, loyalties and requirements that are inherently construed in the international global community. According to Jarvis (2000), the growing international norms that encourage greater inclusion and openness of all political regimes in the world reduce the probability that the coercive nature of economically powerful nations will carry any influential role in the international politics. Thus, it increases the likelihood of considering various convincing arguments presented by various parties, which in turn enhances the making decision favourable to all parties involved. The eminent ambiguity of the contemporary political order in the world provides opportunities of establishing a community. In the modern times, humanity or human nature is epitomised by dynamism and high intensity that has never been experienced before in history (Joseph, Andras, and Stomp 2010). Advance in technology and the subsequent applications have dramatically transformed communication, movement and production of goods and services. Therefore, movement of capital, information and people around the globe is achieved with unprecedented speed and efficiency. The extensive communication networks have virtually transformed the world into a global village (Hurrel and Woods 1999). In view of these changes, proponents of globalisation have demonstrated the various political, economic and social transformations that have emanated from the international trade and connectedness. However, Dougherty (1997) argues that unfavourable patterns of globalisation challenge the authority of countries incapable of dealing with the overwhelming global interactions. These interactions have rapidly reduced the scale of unilateral decisions and total territorial and economic administration of various countries, especially the least developed and developing states. International politics and relations have not just resulted into the declining role of the state, but also to reconfiguration of independence and authority of a country (Philips, 2000). Thompson (1990) argues that the centres of authority are shifting leading to changes in the identity of the countries through the process of international integration and interdependence. The trend is accelerated by the increasing influence and diversity of communication in addition to technological applications, which have empowered non-state actors including non-governmental organisations, civil society and other public movements (Hurrel and Woods 1999). The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War. The subsequent integration and interdependence brought by globalisation exposed the evils disguised by the communism, which embraced social, economic and political aspects of the society. Communism undermined human rights, environment and social development. In addition, the economic disparity between the rich and the poor widened, and these adverse effects are still evident in the contemporary international politics (Hurrel and Woods 1999). The solutions for these human problems require direct challenge and overhaul of the existing politics characterised by self-interests and individualism of the state and non-state actors. Regardless of the region, problems of human existence are shared in the whole world. Therefore, the critical theoretical examination calls for a new global agenda that is founded on the principles of responsibility and loyalty in order to address the challenges caused by globalisation and transformation of the world politics and economics (Burchill et al 2005). In the current state of dynamic transformation of global politics and economics, critical theory presents a major challenge to the convention of the international theory, which is founded on the concept of neoutilitarian. Critical theory presents new perspectives of conceptualising international politics in both theoretical and pragmatic manner (Thompson, 1990). According to Craig (1995), critical theory endeavours to comprehend the society by taking a position outside the confines of the society while at the same time recognising that it is the product of the very society. Therefore, the objective of critical theory is to develop rationalism and knowledge directly concerned with improvement of the quality of human life. Critical theory is founded on belief that human beings possess hidden potentials besides those portrayed in the contemporary society (Craig, 1995, p 153). Therefore, critical theory does not endeavour to replicate the society through mere explanation but to transform and comprehend its dynamics. Therefore, critical theory acknowledges the hypothetical reflexivity of international relations and politics. In addition, it acknowledges the importance of human consciousness as a critical agent for social transformation (Philips, 2000, p94) Regarding international politics, the critical theory emphasises on emancipation, democracy, justice, and equality in society (Dougherty, 1997). Critical theorists assert that the world has not embraced democracy fully and hence it is one of the major unfinished undertakings in the contemporary society. Critical theorists support the adoption of “radical democracy” which is more democratic than the existing forms such as liberal democratic capitalism. According to Chantal (1990, p47) the objective of “radical democracy” is to enhance democracy of the contemporary society. Chantal (1990) noted that Jurgen Habermas a critical theorist opposed substantive democracy on the basis that it empowers the majority to change the government at the expense of minorities, which contributes to the human rights abuse. In addition, substantive democracy is dictatorial and could lead to the imposition of its own concept of what constitutes to justice, human rights, education and morality among other social constituents (Chantal, 1990, p69). Therefore, in respect to international politics, critical theory is of the opinion that radical democracy provides an equal platform for all people, by recognising the inherent differences and promoting utmost pluralism without causing social fragmentation and conflicts. The objective of critical theorists in international politics is to promote democracy while applying communicative rationality developed by Jurgen Habermas (Bronner1994). Transforming the contemporary international system into a more open and democratic society through radical democracy and pluralism is one the major goals of the critical theorists. In addition, building effective relationships is important in enhancing good international relationships. Therefore, critical theorists emphasise on application of communicative rationality in enhancing relationship between government and non-governmental organisations and other stakeholders to ensure inclusions of all individuals in the society. Critical theorists advocate for inclusion of non-governmental and governmental organisations in international affairs in order to promote maximum participation and democracy for all people (Zortan, 1985 p146) Critical theorists promote liberty in the international politics. According to Horkheimer (1972, p243) “critical theorists seek human emancipation to set people free from enslaving situations or conditions”. Human emancipation is major principle of critical theorists including Jurgen Habermas, who affirms that “critical theory empowers human beings to liberate themselves from forms of oppression through self-reflection” (McCarthy and Hoy 1994, p138). In critical theory, Ruggie (2000, p71) contends that emancipation involves “liberating someone from dominance or control of another person or authority”. Conclusion In international politics, critical theory has failed to make a significant mark in ensuring freedom of people. Although abolition of slavery marked an important milestone in liberating human race from one of the most repugnant practice in 19th century, people in different parts of the world still live under various forms of oppression. In contemporary world, dictatorial political regimes still exist, limiting freedom of expression, and abusing other basic human rights with impunity. In workplaces, discrimination based on race, gender, religion and other aspects remains a major impediment in achievement of universal freedom. In addition, poor working conditions, human trafficking, and child labour practices in society, remains some of the most dehumanising practices that the critical theory has failed to address. However, Young (2002) notes that creation of an international system that respects sovereignty of other countries is one of the major objectives that critical theory has achieved with remarkable success. The contemporary international order is characterised by unfair and unjust practices and critical theory has made considerable effort in correcting the situation. Critical theorists endeavour to establish the causes of injustice and inequality, with an objective of formulating a solution for a fair and just international order (Young, 2002). According to Linklater (1999), justice concern is the core of critical theory because fairness between people in different societies across the world has become a matter of critical importance just as international justice. To achieve just societies Linklater (1999, 472) indentified seven areas that the international justice should address. These include fair distribution of global resources. Linklater (1999) argues that wealthy countries should share their resources with the poor nations. The second approach of promoting international justice is elimination of transnational harm and developing democracy within the global institutions. The fourth area involves establishment of diplomatic organisations to address emerging environmental challenges. Addressing the plight of refugees and internally displaced persons is another area that requires attention to promote international justice. Promoting justice of all people in a multicultural setting is the sixth realm that international justice should address and finally equality between all species inhabiting the globe (Linklater, 1999, 472-478). Therefore, critical theory is dedicated to promotion of justice, rationality, equality and democracy in all levels of society. Bibliography Bronner, S.(1994). Of critical theory and its theorists. Oxford: Blackwell. Burchill, S., et al(2005). Theories of international relations. 3rd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Chantal, M.(1990). Radical democracy or liberal democracy. Socialist Review, 20(2): pp 63-87. Craig, C. (1995). Critical social theory: Culture, history and the challenges of difference. Oxford: Blackwell. 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