What were the principal causes and consequences of the Spanish-American War - Essay Example

? What were the principal causes and consequences of the Spanish-American War? Introduction Various wars were fought by Cuba in order to gain independence from Spain. Spain held the country as a colony ever since the end of the 19th century. These wars were labeled as the Cuban War of Independence. While these wars were being fought, Cuba’s status was slowly being changed. Slavery was abolished in October 1886 and many of these liberated slaves were able to gain positions as farmers or urban working class employees. These social changes caused rich people to lose their properties, downgrading their status to middle class. A significant amount of money was also flown into Cuba from the US, with amounts reaching almost 50 million dollars. While money was flowing into Cuba, issues on whether the country was US or Spanish territory were raised politically and economically1. During the Cuban War of Independence, the last few months of the conflict triggered the bigger Spanish-American War. Principal Background Spanish colonial policies were revised soon after the country experienced two major losses in the colonial wars. These defeats caused the loss of its colonies in the Americas and in the Peninsular Wars. Soon after, the concept of the Spanish empire was being redefined by Spain2. Spain’s colonialism can be explained in terms of culture and language. Although oceans separated these territories from each other, their culture and language united them as Spanish colonies. Canovas also claimed that Spain was remarkably different from other empires such as Britain, and France. As opposed to these empires, Spain uniquely contributed to spreading civilization to the New World.3 On the other hand, the US also had its own interests in the Caribbean area. According to the US Monroe Doctrine, it would not allow any interference in any states’ issues and goals in expanding their colonies. Interestingly, however, Spanish Cuban colonies were exempted from the statement. For Americans, Cuba has been attracted by offers to be brought from Spain and other Americans were also high in ‘their hopes of future annexation’4 of the country. The US government did not however consider the same possibilities for other Spanish colonies like the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico.5 Canovas del Castillo was in charge of Spain’s restoration following the wars and it mandated General Martinez-Campos to control the uprisings in Cuba. The general was however unable to control these insurgent activities; he was then replaced by General Valeriano Weyler who succeeded in stripping the insurgents of their weapons and supplies; he also moved many of the insurgents into reconcentration camps. This move however enraged the US and labeled Spain’s actions as extermination, not civilized warfare.6 Towards the end of the 19th century, various factors eventually came together in the US which established its concerns on overseas expansion. Concerns were also growing on new markets and other sources for its raw material needs7. The erratic economy of the late 1800s where the US was hit with depression, prompted the US to consider the foreign expansion of its markets. In effect, they saw the foreign market as a market which could take in their industrial and agricultural surpluses at the same time, one which they could also get their raw materials from8. Latin America and the Far East were considered fertile ground for its economic plans. America was however very much aware that in order for it to succeed in its economic expansion plans, it also needed to build a strong navy to protect its interests9. This meant that the US would have to establish its naval bases in the Pacific islands of the Far East, including the Philippines, Guam, and American Samoa10. A canal through Central America would therefore also be necessary for its economic expansion plans. Other elements also came into play in the Spanish-American war. The end of the 19th century also brought about the missionary expansion of American Protestant Churches11. These missionaries believed that it was incumbent upon them to Christianize the heathens in different parts of the world. These missionaries then served as unofficial agents in American business and political expansion. Social Darwinism was also alive and well at this time and this movement believed that those who are fittest among humans would later emerge as its leader12. This belief was very deep in the mind of America and it declared that manifesting aggression was a necessary part of Social Darwinism. It also believed that there were no longer any new frontiers on the planet to explore; what were instead left were the foreign adventures it could have as a means of keeping their image strong. The Spanish attitude For Spain, Cuba was also one of the thriving colonies which brought prestige to the rest of the Spanish colonies. Havana, like Barcelona was a booming capital city used for various economic activities. As far as Spain was concerned, losing Cuba would mean losing its economic and political stability. Spain was in fact highly benefitting from its Cuban connections with the various resources Spain was already taking from the island. Losing this major source for its resources would cause major negative repercussions on its economy13. Spanish public opinion was inclined to avoid conflict. However, American attitudes were becoming more and more belligerent, taking advantage of Spain's weak position14. As a result, Spanish leaders were forced to respond firmly to U.S. threats. Canovas del Castillo announced that “the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory.”15 However, the rest of the Spanish population did not share such an opinion. The US response The eruption of the Cuban revolt, and all actions which were part of such revolt proved to be a lucrative news source for various news outlets in New York. These papers documented Spain’s actions as well as Weyler’s tactics presenting Spain as a major villain in the war. As a result, the American public viewed Spain as a backward and immoral country which was founded on native slaves and supported by stolen gold.16 This indignation against Spain was only part of the reason for the eventual eruption of the Spanish-American War. Other countries like Germany also had a negative viewpoint of Spain and its aims. In fact, the German press “shows Spain as none other than an imperial ego” and portrays the US as another colonizer angling for dominance17. From the West Coast perspective, the concept of the American Pacific was different and mostly evaluated from the notion of Manifest Destiny which was conceptualized by John O’Sullivan. This notion was based on the belief that the US was destined to “possess the whole of the continent”.18 The US interests were also being compromised by the prolonged conflict with Spain, mostly because of heavy losses in shipping. Businessmen were keen on seeing the end of the conflict, especially as they believed that stability was more beneficial for all parties. President McKinley was seeking an early and peaceful resolution of the conflict. He threatened Spain with the recognition of Cuba’s insurgent status as a territory and sent Steward Woodford to Madrid in order to seek an end to the conflict. Negotiations seemed to progress well with the Prime Minister of Spain and Cuba’s independence was set to start on January 1 1989. 19 As Spain was proving to be a formidable country in terms of the colonies it was covering, America was also starting to consider what role it could play in controlling Spain’s expansion and influence. Roosevelt writes that it was heartened by Cuba’s desire for independence. Roosevelt declared that “such determination is vital, for those unable or unwilling to shoulder the responsibility of using their liberty aright can never in the long preserve such liberty”20. Roosevelt represented the American principles and thoughts on seeking democracy for as many countries under colonial rule, and this included Cuba. Bombing of USS Maine A few days after the Cuban autonomy was declared, a riot broke out in Havana. It was allegedly believed to have been triggered by Spanish officials who found offense in General Weyler’s policies. 21 McKinley then ordered the USS Maine into Havana in order to protect its American citizens and interests. Spain was notified of this move only 18 hours before the ship was deployed; this was against diplomatic policies. A possible conflict was then expected soon after, and was made worse when President McKinley also ordered the USS Maine to Key West, Florida.22 Other US troops and resources were also moved to the Key West, the Gulf of Mexico, off the shore of Lisbon, and also to Hong Kong. 23 On February 15, 1898, the USS Maine sank at the Havana coast after experiencing a massive explosion. Even as President McKinley was emphasizing on tolerance in the midst of the conflict, the US public was already outraged at the death of about 250 soldiers aboard the USS Maine. McKinley was then prompted to seek Congressional appropriation for US defense. The Congress was unanimous in its assent. Blame for the sinking of the ship was firmly placed on Spain24. Spain appealed to its European neighbors, but was encouraged to back down. Various investigations were carried out to establish the cause of the explosion. Reports were inconclusive and inconsistent, with the US firmly blaming Spain for the explosion, and Spain denying any participation in the explosion.25 Even with Spain adamant in its denial, the US was already fueled into going into warring with Spain. The US press was also rabid in its theories on how Spain triggered the explosion, and they further exaggerated the tension between the two countries; the public was also fueled by the press. 26 A passionate speech by Senator Proctor of Vermont evaluated the situation and concluded that war was the most logical choice left for the US27. This provided the final push for the US in declaring war against Spain. The US Asiatic squadron was also mobilized with Commodore Dewey being ordered to coordinate with the rebel leader General Emilio Aguinaldo of the Philippines in order to retake Manila28. Soon thereafter, other troops were sent to the other Spanish colonies: Guam and Puerto Rico, and Cuba itself. Consequences of the War With major defeats in most of its colonies, Spain started negotiating for peace with the US. The Protocol of Peace between the US and Spain was signed and ratified by both countries with the US gaining most of Spain’s colonies, including the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico.29 Cuba later formed its own civil government after the US Military Government tenure was ended. This war marked a major event in US policy because it was the first time the America participated in world affairs30. Other incidents would follow when the US would also involve itself in foreign affairs, especially in conflicts involving territorial and colonial claims. The resolution of the Spain and Cuba tension also allowed the improved the flow of economic trading and shipping activities. With improved trading activities, economic growth was seen in the US and this growth persisted until the 1920s. 31 The Spanish American war also restructured national identity; it also resolved the social divisions which were rampant in the US; and it also led to a rethinking of how the news and editorials were being carried out and released. The Spanish-American War also ended an Empire which has been dominant across the globe for centuries. It ended the reign of an empire which was already showing signs of weakness32. Spain’s loss of Cuba traumatized the country because of its cultural affinity with Cuba, a territory which it regarded for a while as a province, not a colony33. Moreover, Spain was only able to retain several colonies as a result of the war: Spanish West Africa, Spanish Guinea, Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco and the Canary Islands. There also followed a renaissance of the Spanish culture after the loss of its colonies. The war was considered beneficial to Spain because capital which the Spaniards had invested in Cuba and America were returned and invested in Spain34. These investments represented a major source of finance for its large firms, mostly in relation to steel, chemicals, as well as textiles. However, Spain’s political stability was hardly ideal as Spain started to experience major threats to its political stability35. The passage of the Platt Amendment by the US Congress gave power to the US to work within Cuba militarily if necessary. This amendment also set-up a permanent naval base in Cuba; moreover, Guantanamo Bay was set forth after treaties were signed between Cuba and the US in 190336. After the end of the Spanish-American War, the US occupied Spain’s former colonies – Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. The war also united the American Southern and Northern territories for the first time, giving them one common target or enemy37. The African-Americans supported the actions of the Cuban rebels and supported their bid for independence. Black leaders also expressed their readiness to fight for their country. After the Spanish-American War, the US colonized the Philippines. However, for many Americans, its rule of the country was not much different from Spanish rule and they considered American actions to be an abuse of its powers38. These anti-expansionists declared that if it would continue to be involved in foreign affairs, its reputation abroad would be tarnished, very much like in the case of its European counterparts. They also criticized the actions of Americans in the Philippines as inappropriate due to US attitudes of superiority towards the Filipinos39. Despite these protestations, the US occupied the Philippines until the Second World War when it was temporarily driven out by Japan. Nevertheless, this occupation already manifested an American attitude of aggression throughout the world. It has therefore, like its European counterparts, become an Empire as well. Conclusion Based on the above discussion, the Spanish American war was triggered by a variety of factors. First of all, towards the end of the 19th century, Spain was already going through various political difficulties due to the defeat it suffered under Napoleon’s expansionist activities. Unrest in its colonies was also starting to manifest, especially with the oppressive qualities of leadership which Spain was using with its colonies. Just as Spain was reaching the end of its empirical reign, the United States was starting to grow and expand its political powers. The US also wanted to expand its trade activities and eyed Asia and Latin America as lucrative areas for trade and expansion. Tension in Cuba was also apparent with US interests being threatened with Spanish control and presence in the country. Cuban rebels were also coordinating their activities with the US in order to seek support for their cause. The same pattern was seen in the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. The American press was also rabid in its portrayal of Spain as a villain and the US as a hero in the overall scenario. With all these elements in play, the explosion of the USS Maine provided the trigger for hostilities between the US and Spain. War broke out between these two countries with the defeat of the US. US soon rose as a major political player in the world after this war. Spain was also stripped of its colonies with some of these colonies eventually gaining their independence and the others being acquired by the US as territories. As these events unfolded, Spain’s reign as a powerful empire ended, and the US emerged as a strong and influential foreign power. References Baycroft, Timothy & Hewitson, Mark (2006), What is a nation?: Europe 1789–1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 225–226. De Guzman, M. (2008), Spain's long shadow: the black legend, off-whiteness, and Anglo-American empire, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, p. 139 Dyal, D. C. & Thomas, M. (1996), Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War, London: Greenwood Press. Herring, G. (2008), From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. London: Routledge Kagan, R. (1996), Prescott's Paradigm: American Historical Scholarship and the Decline of Spain, The American Historical Review, vol. 101, no. 2, 423–46. Krenn, M. (2005), An Essay from 19th Century U.S. Newspapers Database Spanish-American War, [online]. Available from http://www.gale.cengage.com/pdf/whitepapers/gdc/Sp-AmerWar_whtppr.pdf [accessed 23 February 2012]. Loveman, B. (2010), No higher law: American foreign policy and the Western Hemisphere since 1776, London: Routledge Navarro, J. (1998), History of Cuba, Havana: Routledge. p53-55. Offner, J. 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