Total War and Society between 1789 and 1945 - Dissertation Example

Total War and Society between 1789 and 1945 History has been a witness to warfare and its effects throughout the world, in every sphere, ranging from the daily lives of the citizens of a nation to the international politics in the global arena. Historians have by far failed to propose an accurate definition of ‘total war’ which could gather the general assent of all personnel, however there are a few main features which mark a certain time period as the duration of the world being in a state of total war. Most specifically it supposes the engagement of large armies in battle, which is followed by the constant mobilization of the economies and industries of nations to support the war requirements, and the rapid conversion of regular people into military personnel at time of need. Other characteristics of total war are rather subtle and difficult to measure, since the scope, extent and duration of the war are immeasurable, promoting radicalization of wars, and the evasion of ethics, restraints, moral codes and civil laws imposed by the law or the generally accepted moral principles. Apart from this, the State also acts as a demon by further marshalling troops towards war by incentivizing them with post war merit guarantees. The most common identification for most scholars is the scenario in which the distinction between soldiers and civilians is eroded and all stand on equal footing to protect life, property and honor for their family and nation, and fight all foreign plunderers, since everyone is equally likely to become a victim of war violence in a state of total war (Chickering et al., 2005, 2). The contextual study pertaining to the effects of war on the British nation have centered upon the twentieth century and mostly relate to the effects of the Second World War of 1939 to 1945 on the naval fronts and battlefields, while the social and economic spheres remained largely unexplored, but fortunately the last few decades saw an increase in the time and effort being devoted to the examination of this sector and the changes caused to it due to wars between 1789 to 1945, that covers the historical span of the French Revolution which triggered in 1789 to the Second World War that culminated in 1945, due to the growing recognition of the importance of wars by historians worldwide.1 It is beyond the point of denial that the life of the British citizens and the overall impact on the society, in all aspects were greatly touched by the wars over a period of one and a half century, this large span led to major transformations in the British society. The eighteenth century was subsequently labeled as the ‘age of war’ by observers of history. In the four main and important sectors of development, namely nation, state, society and economy, war has significantly proved to be a major simulator of change, and has thus been the topic of much literary work.2 Research shows that the chronology of the British history highlights the following major wars which have influenced society at large:3 The French Revolution, 1789 The Battle of Trafalgar, 1805 The War between Britain and the United States of America, 1812 The Battle of Waterloo, 1815 The Revolutions in Europe, 1848 The Crimean War, 1853 – 1856 The Indian Mutiny (War of Independence in India), 1857 The War with Transvaal, 1880 The Boer War, 1899 – 1902 The World War 1 (First Total War): 1914 – 1918 The Spanish Civil War, 1936 – 1938 The World War 2 (Second Total War): 1939 – 1945 The above mentioned are some of the major wars and revolutions which have affected the society and economy of different nations of the world since 1789, this study has been narrowed down to focus on the British society; the most studied events were the French Revolution, the First World War and the Second World War, and thus the in depth literature pertains to these three events. Therefore this paper will discuss the major aspects in detail and the minor events roughly, and further conclude with the claim that war has major aspects on society and is largely responsible for changes in a nation overall. Historians around the world, who have worked on the study of the French Revolution, might disagree on the causes and time of the occurrence of the event, but they essentially agree on the fact that this event had effects that were wide enough to extend farther than the frontiers of France. Some effects are very profound and easy to identify, but many impacts are relatively less obvious and thus difficult to recognize.4 The French Revolution began with the order of Louis XVI to the State General for money which would finance his bankrupt Government, and this broke the seal of the long accumulated grievance against the monarch power and led to uprising in the form of massive revolution,5 which lasted for only 12 years and was an internal rebellion in France, but it had far reaching throughout the world. The effects of the revolution were as widespread as the initiation of the matriculation system to the political shift from absolutism theory to republicanism.6 The French revolution challenged the power balance in Europe, and also led to widespread bloodshed in United Kingdom, Prussia, Spain, Russia and Sardinia etc. the revolution also spread the French culture throughout Europe, including UK, where the French fashion penetrated the British roots, and is regarded as the ruler of contemporary fashion today. The revolution also led to the occurrence of the Congress of Vienna which led to the abolishment of slavery throughout Europe, this had massive social effects, as caliber was being given importance over class and status.7 The most prominent change caused by the French Revolution in the political and social sphere was the induction of the spirit of nationalism in the people and the acceptance of this political ideology on the political front, it led to the acknowledgment of emotions such as pride, heritage, culture and society and the uplift in the importance of nation, therefore marshalling a transition in war sentiments, for now war was considered as essentially being between nations rather than Kings.8 This also led to the acceptance of equality before the law for all men, and provided freedom of conscience and work.9 Some historians also regard French Revolution as the precursor to modern day democracy and representative government, thus initiating a transfer of power to the people from monarchs.10 Much time and effort has been devoted to the debate pertaining to the dilemma of the connection of the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution, whether the latter led to the former mentioned revolutionary struggle, or were they mere companions in the history of the world. When considered as being linked, it is essentially recognizable that the revolution spurred the development phase in the industry and triggered advancement in technology, leading to the creation of steam power, machines, mines, metallurgy, factories, farming, town system, and most essentially communication, which were to impact the residents and dwellers of the eighteenth century Europe, especially Britain, for centuries to come.11 The Battle of Trafalgar was a massive sea war fought between the British naval forces and the combined naval forces of the French and the Spanish, on 21st October 1805, as a part of the Napoleonic Wars, it is considered as one of the most prominent and decisive victories of the British fought in the 19th century. It was a substantial confirmation of the British supremacy with regards to naval fleets during the 19th century. The social effects were not very far reaching; they affected the psychology of the English people in that era mainly. It induced a sense of security amongst the people of Britain, and they did not fear any threats from outsiders since they knew that their naval militants were strong enough to withstand any resistance.12 The War between Britain and the United States of America was one of the other several wars in the year 1812, it ignited between United Kingdom and the United States of America, and it is more commonly referred to as the British-American War. The major reason behind the war was the naval actions undertaken by the British fleets on the Atlantic, and the desire of the Americans to conquer the North American colonies of Britain.13 In the British North America (which was later converted into the Dominion of Canada in 1867), this war was considered as a victory earned by the loyalists, and not of the British army, in overthrowing the American troops and protecting their land against invasion, this induced confidence in the Canadians to have protected their nation, and imbued the militant spirit in the society. This also stimulated a sense of nationalism amongst these people. This made the people realize that the North American colony of the British did not require a regular and formal army, but the militia spirit was enough to counter any foreign attacks.14 In the year 1886, it was discovered that the South African area of Transvaal had gold mines, from which gold could be extracted easily and in large amounts, this main dwellers of this area were the Afrikaans who spoke the language known as ‘Boer’. These were the direct descendants of the 17th century Dutch settlers in South Africa. This major discovery was the root cause of the Boer War of 1899, thirteen years after the discovery was made, and this was a major turning point in the history of British nationalism sentiment.15 By the year 1899 in which war broke out, two- thirds of the gold mines in this area were owned by the British stockholders, this was perceived by the Africans as an attempt by the British to undermine and suppress the local cultures and traditions of the Boer speaking people, and eventually to occupy the land. This war did not have any major social effects on the British society except the creation of a difference in the perceptions of the people towards the state and their confidence in the Government. Despite the victory in this war, the concept of the British empire underwent a massive transition for the British people themselves, who initially were imbued with the spirit of nationalism, but after seeing the barbaric practices of their army against the Africans, these same British people were disappointed with their army’s attitude and practices, they were shocked over the gruesomeness their army was and state was willing to adapt for the sake of power and economic prosperity, and this led to a decline in the spirit of nationalism, but the British people could not enjoy this new sentiment and were forced to unite under their nation’s banner again as the world moved into the deadly era of the First ever World War in 1914, which changed the concept of war forever, and the people of a nation had no option but to unite and integrate themselves into a cohesive power in order to withstand foreign pressures, which could deeply uproot the British society, and create dissension amongst the people, for if the British did not unite themselves against the resisting enemies, then it would have collapsed like other empires in the First Total War.16 The World War 1 of 1914 led to massive changes around the globe, since almost all the nations were involved in this total war marked by bloodshed, hatred and alliances. It is however arguable that the impact of the WW1 on the British society was not as drastic as that of WW2,17 yet the involvement of the entire society in the warfare and related activities is indubitable.18 The mental trauma associated with the Great War had dramatic effect on the psychological condition of the British citizens, owing to the uncountable loss of life, of family, friends, and other people in the society, which ensnared the minds of the people in a state of shock and deep sorrow, thus despite returning from war fronts, the spared soldiers were incapable of readjusting or rebuilding their prewar state of life, and hence remained unstable, socially, physically and mentally, in the postwar era.19 Another prominent and obvious effect of the WW1 was the recruitment of the female members of the society for factory production purposes, due to the shortage of male labor caused by the requirement of male personnel to protect the nation; this led to the advent of recruitment of women. This induced a liberation spirit in the females of the United Kingdom, and although most of them returned to their households once the war culminated in 1918, it broke the hesitation amongst women regarding work.20 This emancipation also led to the acceptance of women to vote, this was only restricted to women above 30 years of age initially, this was nevertheless a step towards modernization in the political sphere, and also gave the women a sense of belonging and citizenship in the social context.21 The war also spread the feeling of insecurity amongst the citizens of Great Britain, as the factories, shops, businesses, homes etc. were destroyed on a large scale, surging riots was a common scenario, and only two police stations in the entire metropolitan area in UK were left riot free.22 The World War 1 also improved the living standards of the working class citizens of the United Kingdom, since employment benefits increased, and the wage level increased, full employment became evident, rationing practices were subsequently undertaken, rent control was initiated, an increase in the consumption of milk and eggs was witnessed, and imports to the UK increased, all this improved the social provision within the society.23 The WW1 severely affected the much venerated traditional culture of the British society, where once the status of a soldier or military personnel was the highest ranked position in the society, and this gruesome war led to the merciless killing of soldiers at each other’s hands, depicting hatred, intolerance and vengeance. It also led to a transition from optimism regarding the future of civilizations of the world into pessimism which portrayed the sordid practicalities of mankind and their lives; this was also profoundly depicted in the works of the artists of those days. Society saw the emergence of social scientists and philosophers who pondered over the predictability of human nature and tried to explain the motive and reasoning behind this orgy of hatred and vengeance shown by the First Great War.24 The World War 2 was an event in the history of the world which had long lasting effects on all the nations. As all events are bound to have some sort of effects, and these consequences are not accidental, therefore an event as large as the World War 2 left its impact on not just a personal individual life but on the whole world. While some results are more prominent, others can be met with in a later period. Immediately after the culmination of the Second World War, the United Kingdom went under dramatic social changes, the foremost being the bankruptcy of the nation which existed after the war was over. This led to the Labour Government to enact policies for the re=establishment of the British citizens, and therefore they undertook reformation practices in sectors such as mining, communications, transport and energy majorly, and also extended this help to the Bank of England. The postwar period witnessed a sharp growth in the economic sphere of the nation, as the markets underwent a restructuring phase and were gradually growing out of recession. Female employment once again began to increase, and this led to improvement in the living standards of the people in Britain, these people more equipped with communication and transport means, and many British families were gaining ownership of cars. They were capable of acquiring new houses on leases or mortgages, and thus had better living conditions, and furthermore this improvement in income levels led to the rapid increase in the number of vacations abroad, to countries like Spain, Italy, and France etc. Prior to the war, these luxuries were something only affordable by the richer elite sector of the society, but as a result of the WW2 and related progressions in the economic sphere, the working class gained access to these privileges, improving the British society and their living standards greatly. Another major change was the spread of televisions throughout England, after the World War 2; in 1961 the number of television sets increased astronomically, with 75% British families owning a set of television at their homes. Despite the widespread inflation caused by increased unemployment and massive production efforts in progress in Great Britain, the machinery introduced during the war, as mentioned above, cars, televisions and also washing machines and aircrafts25 etc. became comparatively cheaper and more affordable than before, drastically improving the living standards of the English society. This led to a representation of self sufficiency and adequacy on national front, and this model was generally based on the principle of affluence set by the customers, and it was because of this that the renowned American economist J. K. Galbraith introduced the term ‘The Affluent Society’ for the Great Britain’s progressive era following the Second Total War. This affluent society also saw an improvement in the entertainment sector, as cinema became increasingly common, and replaced books as a form of entertainment, basically to bring people out of the horrifying disasters of the Total War, people also started attending football matches, and according to psychologists, the opportunity to scream at such events helped these people to vent out their grievances and frustrations related to the losses and trauma of the War.26 History is a witness to the gradual changes that took place in the British empire since the late eighteenth century up to the mid of the 20th century, covering roughly one and a half century time period and many wars and revolutions such as the French Revolution, The Battle of Trafalgar, The World War 1 and The World War 2, collectively these could be referred to as the Total War period for Britain, these changes are immensely significant when considered from various perspectives of the British society, despite being full of bloodshed and uncountable loss of life, this era initiated growth and development and thus the society underwent drastic transitions, from being a male oriented society into acceptance of female workers and voters, from a restriction of a luxurious lifestyle for the rich to an increased openness of this lavishness for the working class. The British economy improved in terms of communication, transportation, entertainment, weaponry etc., and thus the overall lifestyle of the people in the economy improved. The society progressed as state provisions increased and as new inventions and production was initiated. In the psychological context, the society changed as people became increasingly confident about their militant power, and their reliance and acceptance of the state increased, the spirit of nationalism was induced and thus developed a cohesive British Empire. Society also progressed in terms of arts and literature, as people began portraying their emotions and vented their feeling in form of literary and wart works. Overall, it would be right to state that the British society underwent great changes since 1789 to 1945. References Bourke. J (2008) Another Battle Front. The Guardian, Tuesday 11th November Bowen. H V (1998) War and British Society: 1688 – 1815- 1st Edition. Great Britain. 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