Liberalism Is Simply Another Tool to Maintain Western Hegemony. Discuss - Essay Example

? Topic: Lecturer: Presentation: “Liberalism Is Simply Another Tool to Maintain Western Hegemony.” Discuss INTRODUCTION This paper attempts to answer the question whether liberalism is simply another tool to maintain western hegemony. Liberalism is one of the most dominant theories in international politics and emphasizes on equality and freedom and most importantly the rights inherent in individuals as human beings such as right to life, liberty, and property. In the modern world, most peoples’ thinking is dominated by liberal ideas and most political systems especially in the west are founded on and shaped by liberal principles and values (Ramsay, 2004). Liberal democracies ensure the will of the people is reflected in government policies by ensuring free and fair elections with full participation of electorates and minimum intervention in private affairs of citizens. However, liberal theory is accused of masking actual inequalities in power, wealth and abilities of individuals in liberal society. For example, if an individual has the freedom to pursue his interests but has no resources, then the freedom makes no sense. The liberal theory in international politics focuses on achieving lasting peace and cooperation in international relations. The debate surrounding this issue is whether cooperation among sovereign states is possible bearing in mind that each state is rational and utilitarian. Most scholars argue that trade and economic interdependence among nations can lead to cooperation among states (Keohane 1980; Chandler, 2010, Weber, 2010). However, though the interdependence among states brings relative gains to members, it is used as a means to maintain western supremacy over the rest of the world since the west has the resources and power to influence other states especially developing countries. The developing countries consent to the western ideas and incorporate them in their policies due to gains from the cooperation. The essay in trying to answer the question is divided into 3 sections. The first section will deal with defining the key concepts used in the essay as well as the ideas underlying the liberalism theory of international relations. The second section will be to explain how liberalism is used as a tool to maintain western hegemony. The first argument will focus on free trade as a tool to gain consent and maintain western hegemony. This is because most third world countries are lured to accept western liberal values through free trade which guarantees them economic growth. The second argument will focus on international institutions that are used to gain consent through cooperative regimes hence maintain western hegemony. I will also argue how globalization has been used to spread western ideas hence maintain western hegemony. The last section is the conclusion whereby the main points will be highlighted. DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS The liberal theory of international relations is based on various ideas from different liberalists but they all agree on various key ideas. The concepts mostly used in this theory include; liberalism, freedom, equality, justice, rights, public society and private society. Liberalism is derived from the concept of human nature which views individuals as autonomous beings with equal natural rights, intrinsic dignity and equal worth (Ramsay, 2004). Individuals are considered as rational beings able to pursue personal interests and find the best way to satisfy those wants. In this case, public interest does not exist although neoliberals argue that individuals can give up their interests for the good of others since they are impartial. They encourage cooperation among states so as to achieve joint absolute gains for the good of all. Freedom refers to the “intrinsic dignity and equal worth of each individual” (Ramsay, 2004: 17).It can be negative or positive liberty but negative freedom is more emphasized and entails non- interference. For example, freedom of speech means other individuals should not restrict one from expressing his/her opinion. According to Dunne et al (2007), the only instance where freedom can be interfered with is whereby the intervention is for protection of the individual from self harm or from harming others. However, for freedom to make sense there has to be some value attached to it that render it important not to be infringed upon. The role of a liberal state is to protect this freedom by formulating rules that restrict actions and not to interfere with private sphere of individuals. Another commonly used concept in liberalism is equality. Citizens are always fighting for equal rights hence the term is at the heart of liberalism. Human nature dictates that individuals have unalienable rights to life, liberty and property hence all individuals are equal. These rights are entrenched in most of the western constitutions and form basis of liberal democracy (Newman & Posner, 2011). However, due to inequitable distribution of resources it is difficult to achieve equality; some people or states are endowed with more and valuable resources hence can compete effectively with others while others have no resources to compete hence are unequal ability and power. Furthermore, women are always treated differently from men due to biological nature or patriarchal relations where family endorses inequalities. Justice refers to equal treatment or fairness under the law. Liberal democracies advocate free and fair trials for offenders in the justice system. The public sphere or society is the area subject to government intervention. While pursuing self-interests, individuals may perform acts that affect other people and it is the role of the government to intervene. However, if actions do not affect others in any way, the government cannot interfere with individuals’ freedoms thus the private area of life. For example, the government cannot interfere with private property unless it affects other members of public. However, in modern times the government has increased intervention in the private sphere by provision of welfare services to enhance equality among various groups (Chandler, 2010). Ideas of Liberalism The liberal theory of international relations is premised on various ideas. Liberal democracy is at the centre of this theory. This entails guaranteeing freedom to individuals and use of majority rule in making decisions. Liberal democracies are constituted through free and fair elections and the representatives’ of the people make decisions on their behalf hence a social contract whereby individuals surrender their rights to those elected in return for protection of their rights or in other words, the governed give consent to the government to rule (Dunne et al. 2007). If the government does not perform according to general will, people can change the government. The different organs of state (executive, legislature and judiciary) are separate and autonomous and the constitution provides checks and balances to government actions. It also appreciates pluralism and tolerance in the sense that people pursue different interests and are competitive in nature hence conflict is inevitable and desirable for change to take effect. Liberalism is also based on economic freedom whereby individuals choose what is best for them. The idea of free market and liberal market policies is prevalent. Since individuals and states are autonomous and rational, they pursue self-interest and are able to make the best choices and derive means to satisfy them (Chandler, 2010; Femia, 2005). There is thus no need to restrict trade transactions through use of tariffs and taxes. There is voluntary exchange of goods and services in the market as well as intellectual properties. Inequalities in income and wealth are also accepted due to the fact that people have different capabilities and skills and due to hard work which deserves more incentives (Ramsay, 2004). This liberal idea however, fails to explain why if individuals or states are autonomous and selfish they still cooperate for the common good of all and whether inequalities are inevitable. Liberalists argue that public good is achieved by aggregating sum of individual interests or impartial reasoning hence individuals and states are expected to use their rationality to pursue a common good. Respect for human rights is paramount to liberalism. Individuals are given liberty to choose religion, join associations and express ideas and are also protected from inhumane acts such as torture, exploitation and forced labour (Inkenberry, 2006). In the international arena, states have had joint efforts aimed at protecting human rights and the universal declaration on human rights acts as the basis for other negotiations on any issues regarding human rights. Liberalism also discourages the use of state religion since individuals have freedom of religion. This has been one of the most controversial debates in the west and the result of conflict and revolutions. For example, the English civil war was partly due to religious conflict though England still retains state religion. Hegemony The concept of hegemony is associated with Antonio Gramsci a Marxist thinker and denotes the predominance of one social class over the others (Chandler, 2010). The dominant class such as the bourgeoisie is able to spread its ideas and gain consent from the subordinates or the proletariat thus making them to internalize and accept them as natural or common sense. In this way, the dominant group or state acts as the leader of the rest and makes them to follow its rules in return for some gains. For example, America has been able to retain its hegemony in the world as it has a powerful economy hence able to finance other nations who in return give consent to its policies (Howson & Smith, 2008). However, as realists argue there is power struggle between nations and international politics is about power balancing therefore, the hegemonic state has to constantly gain consent so as to retain its position. According to Keohane (2005), hegemonic powers must have control over raw materials, sources of capital, markets and competitive advantage in the production of highly valued goods if they have to retain their power as a leader and this is a costly venture. As a result, some states form group hegemony so as to take care of their interests and minimise threats from subordinate states as they become conscious of their disadvantages (Bailin, 2005). In relation to liberalism, hegemony allows cooperation among states in international relations. Since each state pursues its own interests, it is difficult to pursue a common good. However, if relative gains are involved, cooperation may be possible. The theory of hegemonic stability indicates that ‘the more one power dominates world political economy, the more cooperative will interstate relations be’ (Keohane, 2005: 34). The powerful state therefore maintains essential rules governing interstate relations. Liberal democracies open up their economies to trade and have openness in policy making thus giving information to other states who in turn adopt such policies if they are appealing without coercion. Many nations have copied the ideas of liberal democracy from leading nations such as free and fair elections and the rule of law. Moreover, many developing countries get ideas on technology advancement from such countries as the USA through liberalization hence USA becomes a hegemon. Hegemony is therefore essential in spreading liberal ideas and it entails freedom since the states follow the leader willingly without coercion but through consent of sovereign states. Hegemony according to Fontana (2008) is generated within the civil society through private organizations such as the church, trade unions, and schools which have great impact on the whole society. LIBERALISM AS A TOOL TO MAINTAIN WESTERN HEGEMONY Free Trade Free trade involves exchange of good and services internationally without restrictions. To achieve this, liberal democracies negotiate trade agreements between countries to eliminate or minimise barriers to trade. The World Trade Organization ensures international trade moves on smoothly by implementing rules negotiated by states and settling trade disputes among nations. Due to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, most countries have been able to export and import products easily in the world market. The developing countries have gained a lot from trade by having economic growth as well as providing a variety of goods and services to citizens. It also enables transfer of skills and improved technology leading to productivity. However, Mises (1985) asserts that nations have to give up some of their autonomy and sovereignty for free trade to take place by considering interests of others beyond states interests for the benefit of citizens. However, some western states like the USA are always afraid of surrendering their sovereignty and the civil society and politicians are unwilling to support policies that are designed by other decision makers Outside the US (Ikenberry, 1999). If free trade results in relative gains for the developing and developed countries, how then is it a tool to maintain western hegemony? Most of the developing countries trade in agricultural products since they do not have valuable exports such as machinery or finished products that require use of extensive resources and technology. The value of exports is thus less or slightly higher than imports leading to unfavourable balance of trade hence rely on foreign direct investments or capital to acquire imports. This makes these countries vulnerable to acceptance of rules by the dominant western countries. Besides, these countries restrict imports where developing countries have an interest thereby limiting their exports. As the hegemonic stability theory indicates, the most powerful country provides goods to create and maintain a liberal order which has a monetary, trade and foreign direct investments (Femia, 2005). Countries like USA thus give funds, but impose conditions such as institution of democracies to these countries which they have to comply with in order to get funds. This liberal idea of free trade thus leads to western countries being richer and developing countries being poorer and relying on developed countries for assistance hence maintaining western hegemony. The western countries thus advance self-interest through rules that govern international regimes such as tariffs. This ensures the inequitable system is sustained and stable. Institutionalization Many states are involved in formation of institutions to foster cooperation among states. Each state is sovereign and has its own interests and policies to pursue to attain its goals. According to liberalists, each state would only be concerned with individual gains and less concerned with the gains of others. However, state actors are assumed to be rational and impartial hence can bargain cooperative deals with other states through policy adjustments to promote joint absolute gains (Suzuki, 1994). The democratic peace theory of liberalism indicates that democracies are always at peace due to economic interdependence although relative gains can be an impediment to cooperation under anarchy. Countries adjust national foreign policies in order to be able to form cooperative regimes such as the European Union. This according to Smith (2004) is achieved through decentralizing institutional mechanisms. The political structure of civil society is important in ensuring cooperation as it helps mode behaviour and expectations consistent with hegemonic social order. Cox (1983) notes that the civil society which includes; church, education system, the media, trade unions and other institutions are used by hegemonies to gain consent from ordinary members. For a state to join any cooperative regime it has to get support from the public and this can easily be achieved through the civil society. The global civil society legitimizes a world system of domination and exploitation. Through cooperation in organizations such as the United Nations, institutions such as the international criminal court are formed to deal with issues affecting states. Powerful western states have great impact on the rules developed; the US has a power veto in UN Security Council but has not ratified most of the agreements made as not to lose its sovereignty and to retain its power. However, it may compel other weaker nations to abide by the rules in order to get assistance (Ralph, 2003). Hattori (2003) also criticizes International Aid Organizations for acting as mechanisms of consent to capitalist order through ethical hegemony. The liberal institutional theory indicates that institutions provide information to states hence reducing incentives for cheating and that institutional structures influence the way power is distributed (Orang, 1991). Through institutionalization of state power, states are able to ‘constrain each other and mitigate problems of anarchy that lead to security dilemmas and power balancing’ (Ikenberry, 1999). They are thus joined by binding agreements which reduce their freedom and govern power relationships among nations. Through this institutionalization, even if the balance of power changes, the relationship is stable as other states are locked into the order. The leading state is therefore able to retain its hegemonic powers over others as they do not feel threatened by emerging powers. This explains why despite shifts in distribution of power within the west, the political order has remained stable with America retaining its hegemony due to its open and highly institutionalized or liberal nature (Corrales & Richard, 1999). The same case applies to domestic situation in liberal democracies whereby political parties are constrained by the constitution such that the winner cannot use state power to destroy the opposition, stability is ensured. Institutions thus are used to maintain hegemony. Globalization Globalization has constricted the world into a global village and has enabled transfer of technology, formation of multinational companies, and improved communication among others. However, it has led to domination of the world by the western culture hence acting as a tool to maintain western hegemony. El-shibiny (2005) notes that globalization enhances economic prosperity for developing countries, democracy and liberal self-expression but has resulted in erosion of identities of world cultures especially Islam. The multinational companies often interfere with domestic politics of developing countries as they affect the decisions making process. Improved communication has led to spread of the western culture through mass media, films and TV programmes thus maintaining its dominance. The spread of knowledge is supposed to increase happiness for individuals. However, Wolff (1968) refutes this claim and asserts that a broad freedom of speech is not necessary as it spreads propaganda leading to unwanted consequences. Addler & Mittleman (2004) agree with wolf and emphasize that critical thinking should be used to understand own conditions and bring about new common sense but not to oppose one’s culture. Intellectuals are used to gain consent from the civil society and to maintain hegemony and in spreading western ideas. Globalization leads to economic prosperity especially of developing countries. This is because they are able to use advanced technology to increase productivity leading to increased employment. However, there has been brain drain from developing to developing countries as intellectuals search for better employment terms and opportunities abroad (Howson & Smith, 2008).On the receiving end, international organizations or multinational companies outsource jobs to these countries where labour is cheap and employment laws are not strict. This leads to increased low pay jobs as opposed to highly paid manufacturing jobs in the west. The individuals according to liberalism are motivated by self-interest and so if they do not have jobs especially women, they take up the low pay jobs to satisfy their ego. In this case, the gap between the rich and poor countries widens and the west is able to maintain its hegemony through this liberal idea of globalisation or freedom of choice. The state should intervene in private sphere of these individuals to improve their standard of living by provision of welfare services supported by neoliberal theory. CONCLUSION Is liberalism simply a tool to maintain western hegemony? The answer to this question is yes and no simply because liberalism is essential in ensuring intrinsic dignity and equal worth of each individual by guaranteeing freedom and rights and improving standard of living. However, most of these gains especially by developing countries are used to gain consent of the western rule or domination and often lead to inequalities in income and wealth. Liberal ideas such as democracy, free trade or market liberalization, globalization, and respect for human rights are appealing and aimed at ensuring freedom for citizens and economic prosperity. Liberal democracies practice the rule of law and the government is given consent to rule by the governed. However, without resources to exercise the rights and freedoms guaranteed by democracy inequalities in income and wealth may result. Free trade is vital in ensuring cooperation among nations and economic growth. The relative gains by developing countries from free trade are uncountable. However, due to exportation of less valuable goods and importation of valuable goods, these countries incur debts and are compelled to accept the conditions set by the west so as to receive aid hence maintaining western hegemony. Globalization has also led to transfer of technology, improved communication, advancements in education, increased employment among others. However, the western states use this as a means to spread their dominant culture and undermine other cultures. The multinational companies employ a lot of people giving a means of livelihood to them but it gives them low remuneration leading to poverty and increase in the gap between the poor and the rich nations and maintaining western hegemony. The multinational companies also sometimes affect the decisions by the developing countries thus spreading western ideologies. The liberal institutionalization theory emphasizes the role of hegemonic states in constraining power and maintaining a stable hegemony. They do this by forming cooperative regimes and formulate rules that govern their relationship hence states feel comfortable in the relationship; the hegemonic state assures other states of support in return for power. This is how America has been able to maintain its hegemonic power and how the power relations in the west have remained stable despite power shifts. 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