Mystery religions of the Hellenistic era - Essay Example

?Brandi Engbert Ann Reynolds November 25, Mystery religions of the Hellenistic era “The word mystery (mysterion in Greek) derives from the Greekverb myein, “to close,” referring to the closing of the lips or the eyes” (Meyer, 1987, p. 4). Mystery religions were some of the most famous non-traditional religions of the Hellenistic era. Although the religions were present several years before the Hellenistic era, their popularity increased significantly during this period and even spread through the entire Mediterranean region (Ferguson, 1980, p. 157). The mystery religions were created in several diverse geographical areas including India, Iran, Egypt and Greece, yet all of the mystery religions were based on myths that were very similar to each other. Although they were diverse in geographical origin, heterogeneous in historical development, and theological orientation, during the Hellenistic period the various mysteries shared a similar response to the religious needs of the day, and they resembled each other sufficiently to warrant being classified and discussed together” (Meyer, 1987, p. 4). This paper will mainly focus on the Greek mystery religions in the Hellenistic period. The mystery religions, which were often considered cults, promised their followers good things although most of these promises were never fulfilled. Examples of the mystery religions were the worship of single deities like Demeter, Kore, Orpheus, Isis and Cybele (Grant, 1962, p. 98). These figures were taken from ancient myths and legends, telling stories of Demeter, the goddess of grain, and her daughter Kore, also known by the name Persephone, Orpheus and his lute and other major figures. (Tripolitis, 2002, p. 17) They mingle stories about the world of men and the home of the gods on Mount Olympus, relating natural events like the passing of the seasons to myths about the underworld. By attaching stories to these things, people gave meaning to their lives, and through rituals and gifts, felt that they could have some influence on how their crops would turn out, or how they would get through the darkness of winter. Although literature and history do not always recognize the importance of the mystery religions in the Hellenistic era, they were a significant part of the Greek culture and without a doubt influenced many aspects of life. As a result of this they also affected history and there is plenty of evidence in the form of statues, ritual objects, paintings and other relics which show how these divine figures were part of daily life. Of further importance is the legacy the mystery religions left, and how they affected subsequent religions. It appears that the mystery religions had great similarities with early Christianity. This paper will therefore discuss what the mystery religions were during the Hellenistic era, how much we can find out about them and what they had in common with early Christianity. The background of the mystery religions In comparison to the previous Hellenic culture the Hellenistic society was multicultural, open, and tolerant (Mathews and Platt, 2008, p.87). Before, and during the Hellenistic period the Greek citizens worshiped the Olympian gods and goddesses. Greek religion was an indispensable part of private and public life and the polis and religion could not be separated (Mathews and Platt, p.43). The Hellenistic period, from the time of Alexander the Great through the Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Antigonid Kingdoms established by his successors, witnessed the transformation of the polis (city-state). It can be argued that Alexander the Great’s conquest of 336-323 B.C.E. was a main factor that initiated the profound changes to the values of the old Greek polis and the Olympian gods and goddesses linked to the polis (Meyer, 1987, p.2). These changes most likely began because of the growing contact with other civilizations, including Egypt and the New East. During this time Macedonia overtook and philosophy, religion and every other aspect of life began to change. Although heirs of the Hellenic culture; the Hellenistic period was not simply another classical world with Greek values and classical deities. Rather, it was more cosmopolitan and the citizens and gods of this world were not only Greek, but also Anatolian, Asian, African and Indian” (Meyer, 1987, p. 2). Some doubts had started to be cast upon the Olympian deities of the Greek polis long before the time of Alexander the Great. Instead of interpreting the ancient stories literally, and worshiping the traditional deities as living beings, some of the more reflective Greeks had started to see the gods as symbols of important cultural values in Greek society (Meyer, 1987, p. 2). During the fifth century the freethinkers and rationalists of the Sophist philosophy began to offer their own interpretations of religion and the gods. Subsequently others followed (Meyer, 1987, p. 3) and the people searched for a new religion that would satisfy their religious longings, which the mystery religions were able to do for many. “The Mystery religions flourished during the Hellenistic period and proved very popular among people seeking new and more satisfying religious experiences” (Meyer, 1987, p. 4). The reason why the mystery religions had such great success is no doubt mainly because they had something to offer the civilizations that were being drawn into the circle of Hellenism, but at the same time, they absorbed some of the features of other cultures. This openness, and flexibility allowed a diverse and vibrant religious culture to flourish across the Hellenic world. About the mystery religions As mentioned above, many of the mystery religions existed long before the onset of Hellenistic era. During the reign of Emperor Augustus, some mystery religions had already established themselves. Almost all eastern Mediterranean cities had their own celebrated temple to one or more of the mystery religions. One of the major characteristics of the religions is that they were considered cults that enticed people to join them. The mystery religions or cults originated from the Greek society where they would “take people in.” This taking in was referred to as initiation and those who were initiated bared the name “mytes”. For example, Emperor Augustus of Rome was a “myte” of Eleusinian mysteries at the era of Jesus Christ (Green, 1990, p. 331). Initiation in the ancient mysteries was not as we know it today, because they had their own customs and rites. The initiations were not puberty rites on the tribal level; they did not constitute secret societies with strong mutual ties (except in the case of Mithras); admission was largely independent of either age or sex: and there was no visible change of outward status for those who underwent these initiations. From the perspective of the precipitant, the change in status affected his relation to a god or goddess; and it is not so much a social as a personal change. It was a new state of mind through experience of the sacred. Additionally, initiations as we know them today are typically a onetime experience that brings about an irrevocable change. In the case of the ancient mysteries, their initiations, or at least part of their ritual, could be repeated (Burkert, 1987, p. 8). Furthermore, the leader of a “myte” was known as “mystagogos” and was the one who would orient others to the new religion (Green, p.320). The cult had leaders like the “hierophantes” who were believed to have the ability to reveal holy things. There were also other leaders who were torchbearers known as the “dadouchos” (Green, p.321). All of this elaborate vocabulary is evidence of a well-developed system of recruitment, training, initiation and incorporation into the community, bringing the new believer into contact with a whole new way of living, in the company of like-minded believers. As briefly discussed above, the word mystery refers to the closing of the lips or the eyes. In the Ancient Mysteries, a Sourcebook of Ancient Texts, the author Marvin Meyer argues that this could have two different interpretations. First, an important requirement of the initiate, or mystai to be accepted into the mysterion was for them to keep their lips closed under any circumstance. What was revealed during a private ceremony was to stay with the individuals present. The second interpretation of the “closed” nature of the mystery religions relates to the closing and opening of the eyes. Closed eyes brought darkness to the perspective initiate both literally and metaphorically, and the opening of the eyes was an act of enlightenment. The initiate saw the light (Meyer, 1987, p. 5). The separation of the initiate from non-members of the cult was made clear by this deliberate closing of the mouth on matters of belief. It created an “in-group” which offered companionship and assistance, giving people many social benefits. Available information on the mystery religions The fact that the mystery religions existed a very long time ago and that they no longer exist today makes it difficult to understand what it was like to be a member of one of these cults. There are some scraps of information in the writings of many ancient authors which give some clues, however, and this, along with findings from archeology help us to piece together a rough approximation. Burkert addresses this issue of finding reliable sources on mystery religions in his text when he claims that it is often difficult to collect information on the mystery religions as the information is scattered and often unreliable (Burkert, 1987, p. 1). Meyer also confers about this issue in his text and suggests that this may be because the mystai were pledged to secrecy. Due to the fact that most of the mystai kept their pledge, today we possess little information about the central features of the mysteries (p. 4). With all of this being stated, there are still several sufficient resources available that can help the reader learn about the mystery religions. Orphic mystery religion Orphic mysteries are an excellent example of a strong sect that was present during the Hellenistic period in Greece. The Orphic mysteries are said to have been fully established by the 6th Century, and along with other Dionysian mysteries, Orphic mysteries are said to be named after the mythical figure of Orpheus. According to the myths, Orpheus’ power was in song. Through singing he could tame creatures, gather wild animals and trees around him, move stone and cliffs and even abrogate the laws of Hades (Campbell, 1987, p. 70). In his text Campbell explains the essential elements in the legend of Orpheus as being sacred song, the other world, and the ennobling of man by song and transcendence (Campbell, 1987, p. 71). Since the Orphic mysteries did not require a set place for worship they did not construct temples and therefore their cult was able to spread rapidly. Before the middle of the sixth century the impact of the Orphic doctrines was felt by many. The religion spread from Thrace to Attica, as is evidenced in the writings of Pindar and the tragic poets of Attica. From there it spread to Anaximander and Pythagoras, who lived and worked in southern Italy (Campbell, 1978, p. 69). By the second century BCE, converts were being attracted from all over the Hellenistic world to the well-established mystery cults of Orpheus in Greece. The growth of these cults, as well as others in turn sparked an increase in religious zeal after about 100 BCE, resulting in more ceremonies and public festivals and the revival of older faiths. (Mathews and Platt, 2008, p. 103). The cult of Dionysus revolved around the cultivation of grapes and the making of fine wines, and this particular religion was marked by a culture of enjoyment, and even at times drunkenness and wanton behavior. The survival of a great many cups and dishes with ornamental grape, or vines and scenes of heavy drinking and partying are one source of evidence of the way that people celebrated the Dionysus cult. Followers are shown laughing and enjoying themselves, no doubt thankful for yet another successful harvest that allowed them to enjoy the resulting wine. Other cults were more strict and had tighter moral codes, such as the cult of Demeter which venerated the earth and respect for all living things (Mathews and Platt, 2008, p. 42). There was something for everyone in these mystery religions, allowing people great choice in the way they expressed their worship. Similarity between mystery religions and early Christianity Whether or not the rituals of the cults of Cybele, Isis, or Mithra directly influenced Christianity or not, Christianity without a doubt benefitted from its contacts with Greco-Roman mystery cults as they shared religious ideas. The mystery religions provided a universal appeal as they expressly welcomed newcomers with open arms. The mystery religions did not discriminate, all individuals including slaves and women were allowed to be initiated. “With their promise of immortality, these rituals contributed to the atmosphere of the Roman world in which Christianity would later be born” (Mathews and Platt, 2008, p. 203). There were several similarities between the mystery religions and early Christianity. Some of the similarities include that they both believed that ritual meals and ritual baptism was a crucial part in initiation. The two also held in common a belief in a god/man figure who was said to have died and then risen again from the dead. The god/man was believed to finally ascend to heaven. The mocking and ridiculing of his suffering by outsiders is also a common motif. Additionally, according to Ferguson, another key similarity is that early Christian writings had some texts derived from the mystery regions. For instance, the first verse of the book of John which is “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God”, the word “Word” in the verse was a derived from the Greek word is ?????, or logos, which was very significant in the Greek philosophy (Ferguson, 1980, p. 158). Clearly many currents of belief were being passed around at the time when the early church was being founded, and it is natural that some ideas would be adopted into the Christian rituals and practices. Mystery religions were also related to Christianity symbolically. Christians normally used robes for ceremonial occasions. Initially, initiates used to put on robes which were referred to as putting on a deity. It is believed that Paul, who was of Jewish background and also a Roman citizen, copied the idea of wearing robes from mystery religions. It is a practice that was common among the early Christians. However, Christians believed that they were putting on Christ instead of a deity. Ferguson also further observed that one had to wear clothes of Christ after baptism (Ferguson, 1980, p. 158). Furthermore, in the mystery religions, Greek gods were believed to facilitate salvation. Ideas about the human soul and the resurrection of this soul to eternal life after death are common to mystery religions and to Christianity as well. Large numbers of Essenes and Pharisees became members of a Jewish Christian place of worship. It could be argued that the Christian doctrine of resurrection owes much to earlier concepts of reincarnation in the mystery religions. Both the early Christians and the mystery religions thus believed in some kind of rebirth or reincarnation, although they may have defined these terms in slightly different ways. Furthermore, the early Christian community rejected discrimination, a practice that was also rejected by the mystery religions. There was no discrimination of any manner whether it is; free men, slaves, certain nationality, race or economic and social positions in the community. Everyone was equally significant and was referred to as brethren. The mystery religions believed that once a soul rises from the grave, it goes to live with its god. This happens after the believer dies. The early Christians also believed that after death, a person’s soul went to stay with God (Fredrick, 1962, p. 99). During the Hellenistic world, fate ruled the universe, controlled heavens, and determined the course of life. Although no one could change the path of this non-moral, predestined force, individuals could try to avoid the cruel consequences of Fate by various methods. It was the mystery cults that eventually emerged as the most popular and effective response to Fate (Mathews and Platt, 2008, p. 103). This belief in fate may also have influenced the emergence of Christian doctrines on prayer, salvation and the will of God. According to Campbell, the trend to universality in pre-Christian religion was first and most significantly represented by the Orphics (a mystery religion). They possessed no holy site or city that those in quest of knowledge or redemption must visit, and no cult temple hallowed by local tradition; their “dromena” were performed in scattered “sacred houses.” They were indeed Europe’s first itinerant preachers. Their activity in Hellas began at latest in the seventh century and extended through all antiquity, deep into the Christian period (Campbell, 1978, p. 106). Moreover, there was Orphic literature down to the end of paganism. These Orphic doctrines and mysteries, originating in Thrace, revolved around the concept of immortality. They preach an orthodoxy, which suggests that there is a certain content and structure to their belief system. And indeed this word seems to have first been coined among the Orphics. Preachers, missionaries of a religion of salvation, wandering from city to city, must always be convinced that they represent the “right”, in fact the only “right” doctrine, in short, an orthodoxy, and that they celebrate the mysteries appropriate to it. It is understandable that the Christians of late antiquity should have compared Dionysus, the god of the Orpheotelestai, and Orpheus himself with Christ (Campbell, 1978, p. 106). Mystery religions are considered religions of salvation and thus preparatory or parallel to the rise of Christianity. According to Burkert, in a way this would make Christianity just another – indeed the most successful- of the Oriental mystery religions. It is true that some ancient Christian writers were struck by certain similarities between Christianity and mystery religions, and they denounced the latter as devilish counterfeits of the one true religion. Certain Gnostic sects seem to have practiced mystery initiations, imitating or rather outdoing the pagans, and even orthodox Christianity adopted the mystery metaphor that had long been used in Platonic philosophy: to speak of the “mysteries” of baptism and the Eucharist has remained common usage. Yet this does not imply that Greek mysteries by themselves should be seen as predestined to move toward Christianity. The constant use of Christianity as a reference system when dealing with the so-called mystery religions leads to distortions as well as partial clarification, obscuring the often radical differences between the two” (Burkert, 1987, p. 3) It is important, therefore, that when studying the mystery religions, the researchers should try to appreciate them on their own terms, and in their own contexts, as a late flowering of the ancient Greek deities in a format that was relevant and useful to large numbers of people, both Greeks and non-Greeks across the huge territories where Hellenism made its mark. Conclusion The mystery religions were considered cults that existed even before the Hellenistic era. They however, gained roots during that period and increased in popularity. “The secret rites of the mystery cults, which communicated the thrill of initiation and the satisfaction of belonging, answered deep psychological needs in their Hellenistic converts” (Mathews and Platt, 2008, p. 103). In this respect they were a continuation of the earliest Greek cultural values, providing a link with that nation’s illustrious past in military conquest and in civilizing fields such as philosophy and science. The main feature which distinguished the mystery religions, and indeed which helped to give them their name, was secrecy: “Secrecy was a necessary attribute of the ancient mysteries and can be symbolically compared to the cista mystica. The cista mystica is a wooden basket that is closed by a lid. (Burkert, 1987, p. 7). But this symbolic representation is not specific enough. Not all secret cults were mysteries; the term does not apply to private magic or to elaborate priestly hierarchies with restricted access to the sacred places or objects. It is only through a complicated development of Platonic and Christian metaphors that the word mystikos finally acquired this meaning. More revealing is the established Latin translation of mysteria, myein, myesis as initia, initiare, initiation, which brought the word and concept of “initiation” into our language. Therefore we find that mysteries are initiation ceremonies, and key elements of particular cults in which admission and participation depend upon some personal ritual to be performed on the initiand (Burkert, 1987, p. 8). Although it is true that modern scholars too often look at the mystery religions through the much later lens of modern Christianity, it must not be forgotten that there are many features which Christianity shares with the mystery religions. The emphasis on community, on public ceremonies and on outreach to the surrounding population are common to both religions. Some doctrines are similar, such as a belief in the god/man figure who helps believers to lead a clean life and to eventually die and rise to live with their God in heaven. Early Christianity derived valuable teachings and guidance from the mystery religions, partly because Christianity emerged out of the lands where mystery religions flourished, and the Christian could see how others practiced their faith, and probably also because of some converts from the mystery religions to Christianity. Works Cited Burkert, Walter. Ancient Mystery Cults. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987. Campbell, Joseph. The Mysteries. Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks, Volume 2. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 1978. Ferguson, John. Greek and Roman Religion, a Source Book. New Jersey: Noyes Press, 1980. Fredrick, Grant. Roman Hellenism and the New Testament. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. pp. 312-335 Mathews, Roy T. and F. Dwitt Platt. The Western Humanities, Volume 1: Beginnings Through the Renaissance. 6th edition. New York: McGraw- Hill, 2008 Meyer, Marvin W. (ed). The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook. Sacred Texts of the Mystery Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean World. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987. Tripolitis, Antonia. Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002. Read More