John. F. Kennedy and Woman's rights - Essay Example

? Given his affair with Marilyn Monroe, it is ironic to evaluate the gender policies of John F. Kennedy and maintain, as one should at the macro level of historical interpretation, that the legacy of his administration can be said to have made a significant impact on gender equality in the work-place. Likewise, no one would question his legacy on the larger issue of civil rights. In June 1961, Ester Peterson, presented to President John F. Kennedy the idea and concept of creating a commission or body to study and report on the status of women. At the time, Ester Peterson was the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Woman's Affairs. What followed will be argued to be two-fold: first, the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women [Woloch 504], and second, it will be argued that that commission along with the Civil Rights Act had a direct impact on the creation of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 [Maclean 175]. While Kennedy did not live to see the practical and legal impact of both, his mandate or vision is nonetheless captured in his successor's words. Commenting on the passing of the Equal Pay Act, Kennedy's former Vice-President, Lyndon Johnson asserted: “not just equality as a right and a theory but equality as a fact and equality as a result” [Katznelson 542]. In the long term, the influence or onset of legislation in the Kennedy era can be seen the establishment and operation at the Federal level of government, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission [Wolach 560] and as the precedent for all kinds of the affirmative action claims and challenges. And, Wolach points to specific cases where “employers might sometimes favor women and minorities over better qualified men and whites to correct a conspicuous imbalance” [Wolach 560] While the right to vote, or the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919 was unquestionably one of the most important landmarks in Twentieth-century Woman's rights history, it can be said that the back-drop necessary for the Kennedy era legislation was a shift or transformation in attitudes or public sentiment. In particular, the following will argue that the transformation of the role of women in the labor force by during the First World War, the Great Depression and the Second World War, significantly and indelibly stamped a change that has ever since been only an impact measured in terms of progress. As Wolach writes: “The Great Depression and World War II were disruptive emergencies that changed women's roles at home, at work, and in public life” [Wolach 438]. Wolach points to the trans-formative impact of this period resulting from the direct participation of women in the work-place. The emergencies were defined in terms of labor shortages in the case of both wars. And, the transformation that being referred to in the present context, is basically the increase of women participating in all forms of menial labor and other areas that had an impact in two important senses. That is, important in terms of the impact on public sentiment. First, the patriarchal order that had a systemically constructed prejudice against women's abilities, was challenged. The basic perception of women were capable of doing or accomplishing changed. As Wolach stresses, the spectrum of it's impact had to do with “public life” [Wolach 560] as well. For instance, one of the changes that occurred in both Wars but in a more influential sense, during the First World War, was the admission in greater numbers of women in post-secondary institutions or colleges and universities. With great access to education, there was likewise a greater advancement of women in the professions or those fields that required post-secondary education. Greater participation in every facet of the labor force, and in the advanced education system meant that a change for the positive occurred in regard to the patriarchal order's perception of women and their capabilities. At the very same time, it can be said that they also viewed women as a form of opportunity as well. No one would challenge that greater labor participation was not a positive thing, but the overwhelmingly consistent context of greater participation also meant greater exploitation. For the entire twentieth-century, women have been receiving less wages for equal work. And, while there has been a fundamental progress in the percentage of women who are earning less than men for the same or equal amount of work, there is fundamentally a problem of a “glass ceiling” combined with a “stick floor” [Maclean 173] when it comes to “wage equity” [Wolach 579] that “keeps women from moving naturally up the ranks” [Maclean 173]. The metaphor of a 'glass ceiling' implies that there are barriers to rising any further, but that the nature of these barriers is also that they are invisible. Hence, the use of glass in the metaphor. Further, they are a “reserve labor force” [Wolach 446]. This means that they are brought in when there is a shortage, as there was during the two wars when men were being killed by the thousands and also serving overseas. And, being a 'reserve labor force' also means that “when times were bad” [Wolach 446], such as the period of the Great Depression – after the Stock Market Crash of 1929, they were either let go in vast quantities, or they were severely exploited. That is, paid less for the same or equal amount of work being done by a male. During the Kennedy era, there was an important fusion between social justice stakeholders. Thus far, what has been emphasized are the advances made in the work-place legislation or protection as they pertain to women, but it should be stressed that the further issues of race were also: front and center, so to speak. The historical context, is of course, the Civil Rights Movement that gained so much national attention with particular focus on the problems of the “Jim Crow” laws that permeated the American South. In short, the Jim Crow laws are synonymous with all forms of public and educational segregation. One of the important female members of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, was Dorothy Height. For forty years, she was the “National Council of Negro Women” [Maclean 30]. She is important, but it should be said in brief that she was also controversial or that her stance on the issue of women raised a number of questions. And, her position exposed a number of different sides or interests. In her own words, although she took on an important role in the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, she also maintained a position where by, and in her own words: that the “elimination of racism” would remain the sole and only “imperative” for the National Council of Negro Women [Maclean 30]. Indeed, as Wolach points out Height made that position very clear to “Kennedy” himself. And, it was a position that arguably stuck within the community of black women activists. As late as 1966, and at a meeting concerning the commission, one of the close follower's of Dorothy Height and a member of the same organization, namely, the National Council of Negro Women said to revolutionary feminist Betty Friedan that: “we don't want anything to do with that feminist bag” [Wolach 522]. Height's selection as individual for the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, is arguably controversial. However, the commission was likewise dominated by men regardless of the slight controversy brought on by Dorothy Height. Equality in the work-place unquestionably has come a long way since the nineteenth century in regard to exploitation. And, while many of the challenges that have faced women in America during the Twentieth-century remain battlegrounds in the Developing World, it can be said that within the US context, the Kennedy era was a watershed time for progress. It has been argued that Presidential Commission on the Status of Women followed by the Equality Act, are along with the Civil Rights Act, the most important legal changes made since the Nineteenth Amendment. And, while these happened or were passed during a short period time during the early 1960's, it has been argued that the long term influence on this landmark legislation can be found in a 'change' of social attitudes. Further, the change in attitudes, was brought about through greater participation of women in the work-place because of the historical “emergencies” [Wolach 438] of the two World Wars and the Great Depression. While there remains a 'glass ceiling' or a 'wage gap', it can nonetheless be argued that it is significantly less than it was because of the Kennedy era progress. The reason that this era can be said to be one of progress, is that the roots of affirmative action werely firmly planted in this legislation. As was noted in the introduction of the current analysis, Lyndon B. Johnson who carried out much of the Kennedy period legislation, maintained that equality must be achieved in practice. It is not sufficient that equality be only a question of “theory” and therefore, an issue of “rights” as Johnson said. Rather, “equality” must be achieved in “practice”. Thus, both the reduction of the basic 'wage gap' (and not the elimination of it), and the eventual implementation of affirmative action, has its roots or basis in the progress established by the policies of the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. Therefore, it is not just important because it is the culmination of a total transformation of social attitudes, but it is also important because of the lasting impact and the creation of changes that arguably have taken generations to achieve. While Kennedy's personal life leaves much to desire in regard to gender equality, his public life can be defined in terms of great achievements in this area. Works Cited: Katznelson, I. (2006). When Is Affirmative Action Fair? On Grievous Harms and Public Remedies. Social Research, 73, 541-568. Maclean, Nancy. (2008). The American Women's Movement, 1945-2000: A Brief History with Documents. New York: Bedford Books. Woloch, Nancy. (1994). Women and the American Experience. Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. The Wage-Gap and Gender Inequality in the Work-place. A Story of Twentieth-century Progress. Read More