Evolutionary Perspective on Health and Disease - Assignment Example

1. The coefficient of relationship between you and your relatives: The proportion of genes shared. a. Between an individual and his / her mother. 50% of the genes are shared. (B) b. Between an individual and his or her grandfather. 25% of the genes are shared. (C) c. Between one and his/her identical twin. 100% of the genes are shared. (A) d. Between one and his/her son 50% of the genes are shared. (B) Any two living organisms share a proportion of their genes in common. Organisms with a closer phylogenetic relationship share more genes. If two human beings are chosen randomly and their genes sampled, many similarities will arise. Around 90% of genes in human beings are common. In the question answered above, stating that one shares 50% of the genes with his/her mother simply means sharing of 50% of and above the 90% common to all human beings. 1. Evolutionary theory proposes that co-operating with kin is more likely and is more beneficial from an evolutionary perspective. In modern societies, less and less of our lives are spent in contact with relatives. This does not support evolutionary prediction. Co-operation with the kin help in promotion of survival as well as plays a big role in the well being of the next generation. In analysis, according to human populations, the traits that can be influenced by the parents to their kin can be classified as social, political legal and religious values and modern governments that are elected. Co-operation could also help in inculcating of traits that enhance kin fitness. Kin are more likely to help each other in this case due to the religious values that are inculcated to them. The religious lessons make them work together with the other kin. Kin are also likely to help each other according to the cultural values that have been inculcated to them by their parents. In parental investment, kids also learn much from the relationship of the parents with their brothers and sisters. This plays an upper hand in how the kids will co-operate with each other and also help. If parents work together with their sisters and brothers, then chances are that the trait will develop in their offspring’s. When people grow in the same environment, there is a bond that develops. People grow up together facing the same problems. These challenges make them want to work hard to get out of those challenges. When one gets out of those hardships, then chances are that he/she will work hard to get the fellow kin out of that given situation. Co-operation of the kin reduces the resources that the parents have to invest in the kin. This increases the chance of self reliance in the kin. The food provided by the parents is reduced. This is because the kin can be able to fend for themselves. This makes it possible for the kin to invest for the future generations. This may however be advantageous or disadvantageous. One of the advantages is that with co-operation kin would learn self maintenance. This is where they are able to rely on themselves and can be able to cater for their day to day needs. The second advantage of kin helping each other is that they reduce the burden to their parents. The resources used by their parents in their upkeep could be used in development and starting of lucrative programs. The time spent by the parents in provision of food and other things can be used in other development activities. One of the disadvantages is that the lazy individuals will drag the hardworking ones behind. The lazy kin will always wait for help from other kin. Kin also learn through the hard way especially if their parents had not invested for them. They thus have to begin from scratches. 2. The fields of study bringing about evolutionary medicine unit are Human reproductive ecology and Evolutionary psychology. a. The discipline that focuses on the difference in reproductive success between individuals is the human reproductive ecology. It also involves examination of human fertility over cross cultural and ecological contexts. (A) b. The parent discipline of evolutionary psychology is cognitive psychology. The cognitive mechanisms are designed by the process of natural selection. It entails acquiring language, mechanisms of avoiding incest, intelligence, sex specific mating characteristics among others.(C) c. The discipline interested in whether an individual’s behaviour conforms to the evolutionary predictions is Evolutionary psychology. (B) d. The discipline interested in the specific psychological mechanisms that cause behaviour is evolutionary psychology.(B) 3. Behaviours that could be considered as parental investment according to the broader definition parental investment provided by Clutton-Brock(1991) are; i. Storage of necessary fats to produce a child (C) ii. Competition between males to mate with a female and produce a child.(E) iii. Developing reproductive organs to produce a child (G) iv. Risk associated with protecting a child (H) Paternal investment is obligate or expressed facultitavely. Obligate means that male care also plays a major role of development and survival of offspring’s. 4. In the study of evolutionary approaches to human behavior, Barrett et (2002) state that natural selection is based on just three premises and their logical consequences. Description of the three principles a. Principle of variation ( phenotype) This is the ability of human beings to alter their phenotypes so as to respond to the changes in the environment. This is where ones phenotype responds to match with the changes in the environment. This is change is known as phenotypic plasticity. This phenotypic variation that takes place in the life time of a human being is known as development plasticity. This entirely deals with the occurrence of different phenotypes from the same genotype due to influence by the environment. These changes are not created by the environment but initiated. b. Principle of inheritance Some traits that take place due to changes/ variation in the environment can be inherited. Such changes may be induced spontaneously so as to respond to a certain change in the environment. In this type of inheritance, there is no change in DNA sequence. These traits that are inherited do not have to be based on DNA. The principle of variation broadly looks at how a certain trait in relation to the other traits gets into the future generation. This inheritance has been robust in few cases over many generations. c. Principle of adaptation This is the principle that arises from genes that are developed in the competition process. This competition comes about due to availability of limited resources. Since survival is necessary, these traits play a big role in helping an individual to live. Adaptation in human beings could also refer to acquisition of traits that come up in the process of training. These traits could be in athletes whereby there is increased heamoglobin levels so as to increase oxygen intake. 5. Sexual selection could operate through two different processes. Sexual selection is based on the trait and some of the appearance so as to acquisition of the best mates. Different types of sexual selection produce different features in males from different species. The two forms of sexual selection are intra-sexual selection and intersexual selection. Intra-sexual competition This is where members of the same sex compete in order to access the members of the opposite sex. This type of competition entails the physical and behavioural traits that help in determination of the outcome of aggressive encounters among males in given territories if they posses those given traits. Males competing for a certain female rarely fight. Instead they undergo a ritualized process so as to scare away other males. In the case of human beings for example the Suris, if two males want the same woman then they have to undergo a stick fighting ritual. This is where the members of the same sex are involved in a stick fighting and the one who wins gets the woman. Inter-sexual competition It influences the evolution of secondary sexual traits. This determines the level of attractiveness of members of one sex to the other. For example, Suri women have disc plates in their mouths. This enlarges their lower lips and is considered as a sign of beauty. The lady with the largest disk in the mouth attracts more bride price. 6. Sexually selected traits in females A. Gossip- this is a trait that mainly is experienced in human beings. Grooming and gossip help primates to maintain these groups. Female human beings talk of one another and in a way the gossipers are feared by the rest. This gives them an upper hand in getting the partners as no one would like to be gossiped of taking ones male partner/mate. B. Proper grooming to look attractive to the opposite sex, the most attractive have an advantage in getting better mates than the less attractive. In the case of human beings, social status, good body appearance, good facial looks, good voices play an upper hand in attractiveness of an opposite sex. Ladies go to an extent of applying makeup’s so as to improve looks and thus become more attractive. Some also go to an extent of undertaking surgery to improve the way they look. This in turn increases the chances of being noticed by individuals of the opposite sex. C. Females are choosy. At times they may consider choosing mates with long horn (ornamental). This is with knowledge of getting protection from the mate. Other females could choose the big bodied organisms and maybe others choose animals of opposite sex with large sex organs. D. Some females display good traits such as good colours. This makes them attractive and good-looking. Other females exhibit qualities such as light bodies. Light bodies can easily enable running and thus escaping from the predators. This is a good quality as any parents would like to have good traits that would enable their little ones survive. Making them able to escape dangers. This makes them less vulnerable and increase chances of getting the next generation. 7. In the reading on the gossip in the Tsimane of Bolivia, negative gossip was associated with lower attractiveness ratings of women. However, women rated as promiscuous were not rated as being less attractive. Reasons as to why promiscuity was not associated with lower attractive ratings in this population are; i. In Tsimane sample, the brand of promiscuity was limited to young women. Young women are generally perceived to be the most attractive. This is by putting into consideration their age. In the study also many of those women were unmarried. These women at young age and not married have many good physical traits that make them look nice and thus attractive. These young women are good speakers as they have confidence in themselves. This may play an upper hand in attractiveness. ii. Promiscuity may be less important to attractiveness rankings made by women than those made by men due to paternal uncertainty. Women may be thus expected to compete for those attributes that are desirable by men. They should be keen in noting the attributes. These could range from good mothering ability to those who would offer a good source of advice. 8. History of evolutionary medicine. Evolutionary medicine applies modern evolutionary theory in understanding the health and also the diseases. This is aimed at getting to know the reason as to why people get sick. Evolutionary medicine focuses on why evolution has shaped molecular and physiological mechanisms in a way that leaves mankind vulnerable to different types of diseases. In the process of evolution, mutation takes place and this result to introduction of new alleles in the population. The alleles introduced flow across the generation. This has also happened in the disease causing organisms. In the last 50 years, medicine has undergone real metamorphism. This is in order to make it possible to cure the diseases whose complexion has also increased. This field has employed many people to do the research and come up with the required drugs. The process is costly. 9. Benefits and disadvantages that evolutionary medicine brings to medicine. i. Evolution in some cases has led to formation of complex cells. These cells in to some extent may be resistant to certain diseases. This is a positive trait in the field as the individuals who have high resistance do not need medication for certain aliments. ii. It has enabled in coming up with highly experienced researchers in the field of medicine. This is due to frequent carrying out of research of certain ailments and coming up with the correct medication. iii. It has led to coming up with complex compounds that counter given diseases. These compounds may not be beneficial to the body. In most cases they have side effects that may have adverse impact on people. Use of this complex compounds may also make one’s body resistant to certain medication. This may make it difficult come up with a drug that will counter that effect. iv. Cost-since the diseases are changing time and again alternative medicine ought to be brought forward. In this process expensive research is done whereby sophisticated machines are required. There is also large labour requirement. A lot of funds are therefore used that could be used in other development activities. v. Time- so much time is wasted in analysis of the changes. Also much time is wasted in carrying out research and establishing the root cause of given diseases. This wasted time could be used in carrying out other project. 10. Males and females pursue different mating strategies so as to maximise their reproductive success. Male mating strategy is characterised by focus on parental investment. This means the survival of the offspring’s as in obligate investment. (D) The female mating strategy is characterised by focus on reproductive effort.(A) 11. In 1969 US surgeon general stated that society and medicine could close a book on infectious diseases. a. Explain what the surgeon general means by this statement. This statement means that the war on infectious diseases had been won. This would lead to war on the infectious diseases coming to an end. This meant there was a proper understanding of the root cause of the infectious diseases and a correct diagnosis realised. There was therefore no need of continued research in the field of infectious diseases. b. From the evolutionary perspective the statement made by the US surgeon general was misguided. To start with, the office of PHS has never located where the statement came from. There was even no confirmation as to whether the surgeon made that statement. In day to day life, mutations are taking place. These does not only take place in the cells of living organisms. As these changes take place there are changes in DNA and RNA of different bacteria’s and viruses. This could result to emergence of different living organisms. These thus have the ability of causing diseases that are not curable by the drugs that cured the initial illness. There is thus great need of research so as to come with a proper medication for the new ailments that come up. New communicable diseases arise now and then. Losing sight of traditional program responsibilities would mean losing the research expertise and we could in the process get challenge from these diseases. The close of the war on infectious diseases could also mean that all the trainees in the field of infectious diseases not graduating. Even if they graduated and there was no war against these diseases means that their training was in vain. It could mean waste of time and resources in training the individuals. This could really demoralise them. 12. Middle East respiratory syndrome – this is a new novel coronavirus that causes severe acute respiratory infection. It was identified in Saudi Arabia in September 2012. This virus causes an infection that appears to be the result of spread of the virus from the camels to humans. This virus is similar to coronaviruses found in bats. This infection has been noted in camels and could pose risk due to handling of these animals. This infection can be passed from one person to another through respiratory secretions. This was updated on 6th march 2015[Med15]. The new avian influenza –this human infection was reported in china in March 2013. This arose as a result of exposure to the infected poultry and dirty environments. Patients have had serious respiratory illness. The world health Organisation has reported 132 human H7N9 with 44 deaths. No evidence of human-to- human infection so far. Causal agent is H7N9. 13. Superbugs in Perth- a deadly anti-biotic resistant superburg has occupied royal Perth hospital. Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE) is the bacterium that is responsible. This bacterium keeps changing and every now and then it has a new strain. This bacterium is widespread. The hospital tries to reduce the number of VRE by discharging the positive patients. This bacterium spreads quickly via contact with an infected person, respiratory droplets and food. VRE was first identified in Australia in 1994. At the time of its discovery, it did not cause much stir until in 1996 when several cases were reported. This bacterium can at times be aggressive causing urinary tract infections, blood poisoning and heart infection. 14. From the four corners documentary, a man named Joel Beclu inhaled a strain of E. Colli bacteria. The inhalation took place in the process of travelling in affected areas. These bacteria survived in the gut until it was unleashed by the prostate procedure. All this time, it was harmless. Once the bacteria begin its action, the patient began shivering. In this case preventive anti-biotic doesn’t work. Infection spreads pretty fast in the body. A lot of pain is experience in the collarbone. The lower back pain starts to come as in the case of Joel and then followed by hip right in the hip joint. Due to intensified pain in the collarbone, the patient decided to undergo operation to undergo scrapping of the abscess in the collarbone. The ability of one’s organs to cope with the bacteria and the antibiotics is what plays a big role in the patient’s survival[num05][Sia] References D.N,S. (n.d). Animal Genetics and Evolution MedicineNet.com. (1996 – 2015). Retrieved on 04/12/2015, from Middle East Respiratory Sydrome Coronavirus Infection; http://www.medicinenet.com Voland E, Dunbar RIM (1995) Resource competition and reproduction — the relationship between Economic and parental strategies in the Krummh¨orn population (1720–1874): Human Nature 6:33–49 Voland E, Dunbar RIM, Engel C, Stephan P (1997) Population increase and sex-biased parental Investment: Evidence from 18th and 19th century Germany. Current Anthropology 38:129– 135 Voland E (1998) Evolutionary ecology of human reproduction: Annual review of anthropology 27:347–374 Read More