Conventional Methods of Male Contraceptives - Coursework Example

Male Contraceptives Name: Course: Instructor: Institution: Date of Submission Male Contraceptives Meaning and History Male contraceptives are methods that primarily involve male physiology in preventing pregnancy. The most commonly known kinds of male contraception are withdrawal/ pulling out, condoms, vasectomy and outer-course. The history of contraception dates back from the time immemorial when withdrawal method was widely used to reduce pregnancy in every intercourse. In 40 A.D. Dioscorides mentioned the contraceptive property of hemp seeds and rue in his De Materia Medica which was a widely recognized medical text during medieval time. Herbs such as Malvaceae, cyperaceae and aristolochia indica were widely used in medieval Persia for male contraception (Ghadiri & Gorji, 2004). Indian civilization used neem tree for this purpose as described in the Ayurvedic medicine by Sushruta (Kogan, & Wald, 2014). According to Kogan and Wald (2014) asserts that although both female and male contraceptives are available, male alternatives are relatively underused. Surveys have revealed that about 80% of male spouses regard the issue of contraception as a shared responsibility. Globally, more than 50% have expressed interest in employing male contraceptives as an alternative way to avoid pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (Holden, et al. 2010). In Australia, Holden et al. (2005) noticed that although earlier researches had excluded older men in determining the needs of all men as contraceptive use is needed, men are increasingly continuing with their sexual activities, which makes contraception issues relevant with men in both middle and older age/ aging population (Kogan, & Wald, 2014). Conventional Methods of Male Contraceptives Condoms Condoms are one of the barrier methods that date back to early Roman Empire. From the accounts recorded as from 16 century, sheath like methods, which became forerunner to condoms could be used to prevent pregnancy and infection. They have been developed from animal intestines to latex, before becoming polyurethane-based (Kogan, & Wald, 2014; Family Planning Association of UK, 2014). Uses Condoms are normally packaged inside wrapper foils in rolled-up forms. They are designed to be put on tip of penis and unrolled over an erected male organ. When wearing, it is important that some spaces are left in the tip for semen to have a place to be collected, or else due to pressure, it may be forced out of the device. After use, it is recommendable to wrap it in a tissue or tie it in a knot before disposing of in a covered trash (Kogan, & Wald, 2014, 2014). Effectiveness of the Condom With correct and consistent use of the male latex condoms, they can reduce the transmissions of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy. According to some laboratory studies, latex condoms can provide an essential impermeable barrier to particles of the same size as STD pathogens, HIV included. Epidemiological studies have also revealed that in real-life setting, where an infected partner consistently uses the condom while the other one does not use, there is a high degree of protection. However, there is a small possibility that condoms can slip or break during their use, or weaken if they are stored for so long time in too much heat. The condom use has had a failure rate of 10-18% (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Kogan, & Wald, 2014; Trussell, 2011). Advantages As already mentioned, correct and consistent condom, use in every sexual intercourse can prevent STD, HIV/ AIDS included and pregnancy. Moreover, condoms have been found to be much safe with no hormonal side-effects. There is no risk of one to lose fertility permanently, as its usage can be stopped any time. They can be found and used easily without seeking the professional services of any healthcare provider. Importantly, men of any age are able to use it to prevent pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases Disadvantages Women protection will depend on the man’s correct and consistent wearing of the condom to prevent diseases and pregnancy. Some people believe that condoms condone sex outside marriage, immoral sex or sex with prostitutes, and therefore they do not find its needs. Others find it quite embarrassing to buy, put on, ask partners to use or throw them away. There are possibilities that condoms may slip off during sex. When condoms are stored for a long time, or where there is much sunlight or humidity and too much heat, they may weaken (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014). Side effects Latex condoms may cause allergy or itching due to the kind of lubricant and latex used. Coitus Interrupts (Withdrawal Method) Societies such as those in ancient Rome and Greece preferred small families and they are known to have used this method for birth control (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Jones, et al., 2009; Kogan, & Wald, 2014). Uses The method involves withdrawing the penis, away from a woman’ vagina or external genitals, before ejaculation so that pregnancy can be prevented. By withdrawing the penis, he will be preventing sperms from entering the vagina. It requires self-control especially on the part of a man (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Kogan, & Wald, 2014). Effectiveness of the method Like any method, effectiveness will be achieved through consistent and correct usage. Observed failures have been realized to be about 15-28% annually. Despite the normal timing of withdrawal, it said that Cowper’s fluids that can be emitted before the normal ejaculation normally have sperm cells which may compromise the effectiveness of the method (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Jones, et al. 2009; Trussell, 2011). Advantages It can be used by couples who cannot access other forms of contraception. Some men prefer it because of avoiding the effects of hormonal contraceptives to themselves or to their partners which can bring mood swings, depression, decreased libido, vaginal dryness, weight gain, headaches, and nausea among others. Partners prefer this method to have a greater sense of their sex by feeling their partners well. It cannot involve one in incurring any medical costs, or medical subscriptions and has no physical side effects (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Jones et al. 2009; Kogan & Wald, 2014). Disadvantages It has been less effective in preventing pregnancy. Moreover, the method is largely not effective in preventing sexually transmitted infections such as HIV since the pre-ejaculate fluid may carry bacterial or viral particles that may infect the other partner.Other studies have also noted that the withdrawal method can be a way of developing sexual problems such erectile and premature ejaculation (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Jones et al. 2009; Kogan & Wald, 2014). Side effects Some partners may become nervous which may in turn decrease the pleasure of the whole sexual experience. Therefore, it is recommended that couples use additional or extra methods when controlling their birth to reduce anxiety (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Kogan & Wald, 2014). Heat- base contraception This experimental method involves one heating his testicles so that he cannot produce sperm. Sperms are normally produced at specific temperatures that are lower than those of the body are. It is expected that when testicles are exposed to high temperatures over 116 degree F, the fertility of a person can be affected for some months. One of the methods known for this case is the ultra sound which is still under investigation. It involves applying high-frequency sound waves to testicle tissues, to be absorbed and then converted as heat energy. Additionally, since they can affect ion production rate, they will obviously create an environment that is not suitable for spermatogenesis (Male Contraception Information Project, 2014; Tsuruta, 2012). Effectiveness From10 men that were involved in a certain experiment in India experiment, the result showed 100% effective. Despite practicing birth control the men involved could procreate and create healthy children successfully with no birth defects ( Trussell, 2011; Tsuruta, 2012). Advantages and Disadvantages The method is not costly, as it will not require anything after one has got it started. Moreover, after it has started, it will take little time to maintain and it cannot limit one’s sexual experience in anyway. Despite being reversible, it will not put one on the condition of consuming drugs or hormones (Male Contraception Information Project, 2014). On disadvantages the method has not been tested by many people and /or their couples, and that is why it is not popular. Consequently, little is known regarding the babies who have been born due to its failure or other risks that may affect the health of testicles. As already explained, since the method is still unknown, few people support it (Male Contraception Information Project, 2014). Side effects One problem of the method is that it may be one of the causes of testicular cancer. Since it involves heating and raising the testicles, it can result in impaired development of an adolescent youth’s testes. However, for an adult, there should be no worry since his is already developed (Male Contraception Information Project, 2014; Tsuruta, 2012). Different Ways in Vasectomy Vasectomy involves surgical procedures of male sterilization and permanent birth control. During vasectomy, vasa deferentia are severed from testicles and sealed/tied to prevent sperms from being ejaculated which will obviously prevent fertilization. Since the process is simple, vasectomy can even take less than 30 minutes and it will be complete (Sokal, & Labrecque, 2009). No-Scalpel Vasectomy No-Scapel or key- hole vasectomy is a vasectomy that involves sharp haemostat puncturing the scrotum, as opposed to using a scalpel. The method has become to be preferred because it results in a smaller puncture or incision wound which typically limits hematones and bleeding. Moreover, there are normally few chances of one getting infected and in fact, it can result in a very quick healing time, contrary to larger wounds made with a scalpel (Sharlip, et al., 2012). Open-ended Vasectomy In this vasectomy procedure, the physician does not seal the testicular end of the vas deferens, which allows the sperms to continue streaming into the scrotum. It is said that this method will ease pain that may result from back pressure in the epididymis., and therefore, it may reduce long term effects such as post-vasectomy pain syndrome (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Sharlip, et al., 2012). Vas-Clip Vasectomy It involves injection of sterile euflavine or water into the vas distal portion to kill sperms at the time surgery is being done. This is an additional step in main vasectomy procedures, and has been showing positive results although it is not prominently used as few physicians offer it (Sharlip, et. 2012). Effectiveness of Vasectomy In some cases, the method has been showing earlier failures, as manifested by pregnancies within the first few months after vasectomy. Therefore some physicians have been recommending post-procedural process (1 or 2 times) to verify if it was quite successful, by semen analysis. Moreover, there can be late failures due to spontaneous vasa deferentia recanalisation. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists have noted that in 2000 vasectomies, there are about 200 to 300 cases of late failures (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Sokal, & Labrecque, 2009; Trussell, 2011). Advantages of vasectomy It is a minor surgery which is safe and noted as highly effective and permanent. It is the most appropriate for those men that do not want children permanently. It is cheaper and has fewer complications compared to tubule sterilization. Moreover, the procedure does not deny a man to enjoy his sexual experiences. Lastly, one has an opportunity to turn to a contraceptive that will not influence his mood, as it is the case with hormonal procedures (Family Planning Association of UK, 2014; Sokal, & Labrecque, 2009; Trussell, 2011). Disadvantages Some men fear that the procedure can cause some erection/sex problems, and one should be ready for little pain and discomfort after undergoing the surgery. As already seen, the procedure may not become effective immediately, which may call for the patient to wear a condom. Vasectomy cannot protect one against HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Regrets after the death of a child or divorce have been greater for those men still in their twenties (Sokal & Labrecque, 2009). Side Effects of Vasectomy Firstly, as already mentioned, one should be prepared to ensure post surgery scrotal pains. Most literature in fact suggests that over 20% of men will undergo chronic pain following the procedure of vasectomy. Early complications such bleeding, with amount sufficient to stain cloths can be much disappointing. Men who undergo vasectomy stand greater chances of heart disease risk and allergy. This allergy may occur due to anti-sperm antibodies that will begin developing as a result of the vasectomy. The other risk is the prostate cancer risk. According to the American Medical Association Journal, men who have undergone vasectomy are at a greater risk of developing prostate cancer (Garside, 2013). Injection Male contraceptive injection is not yet available on the market, as it still being prepared and therefore, it is not currently available in Australia. There are clinical trials that have been carried out under the auspice of the World Health Organization. If it becomes ready, the expected Vasagel injection can temporarily block sperms that flow through a man’s testicles. However, although it will replace the condom, it has to be injected above the testicle (Garside, 2013). Therefore its effectiveness, advantages, disadvantages and side effects are yet to be known. The Pill Males not wishing to undertake options such as condoms, abstinence, vasectomy, outer course or withdrawal can now seek medication stops inform of pills.The goal of developing synthetic hormonal contraception is to find ways of blocking the effects of hormone testosterone so that testicles can stop producing healthy sperm cells (Vogelsong, 2005). Use When one takes a testosterone pill, the approach will have to stop the testis from producing testosterone, which will prevent normal sperm production. However, to prevent side effects such as abnormal liver development, men are supposed to compliment with the progestogen pill (Badiei, & Bahasadri, 2009). Effectiveness The method is not much effective, as some men have been found to cause pregnancies, even after taking the pill. One most probable reason is that they may be producing high amounts of testosterone to stimulate sperms even after the take (Vogelsong, 2005; Trussell, 2011). Advantages Even after taking the pills, men are still enhanced with libido. Pills are very convenient to use, one just need to pop them into the mouth and they will be already in use (Vogelsong, 2005). Disadvantages Due to increased blood flow, one can experience insomnia, heartbeat and dizziness. Powerful ingredients in them may compromise with vital nutrient uptake, which will generally affect one’s health. Pills can also be costly, and therefore a large portion of male population may not be able to afford them. Lastly, the pills will obviously lose their effectiveness when one skips to take one, as scheduled (Garside, 2013; Badiei, & Bahasadri, 2009). Side effects Men taking pills for birth control will normally experience pimples on the face and somewhat painful chins; this will obviously bring anxiety. Irritating too is that pill- takers have been having added weights (Vogelsong, 2005). Current Research/ Nonhormonal Currently researches such as those being done at the University of Massachusetts are going to offer avenue in discovering non-hormonal male solutions to birth control. Instead of shutting down the production of sperm via testosterone, researchers are seeking to disable the sperm. The University researchers have hypothesized that by blocking the Cs protein, the sperm (RISUG) can be incapacitated, as its tail would have broken (Gottwald, et al., 2006). However, other non-toxic synthetic chemical are being developed to serve the same purpose. Apart from reacting and blocking sperms in the vas deferens, they can also kill them when they come in contact. Other studies are also focusing on epididymis, which allows sperms to mature normally, and therefore attempts are being made to interfere with the way it works (Garside, 2013). References Badiei, Sh, & Bahasadri, Sh. (2009).The male contraception supermarket. Shiraz E-Medical Journal, 10(3). Family Planning Association of UK. (2014). Your Guide to Contraception.FPA UK. Retrieved on 30 September 2014 from http://www.fpa.org.uk/sites/default/files/your-guide-to-contraception.pdf Garside, D.A. (2013).An update on the potential for male contraception: emerging options. Open Access Journal of Contraception, 1(11). Ghadiri, M.K. & Gorji, A. (2004).Natural remedies for impotence in medieval Persia. International Journal of Impotence Research (2004) 16, 80–83. Gottwald, U. et al. (2006).New approaches for male fertility control: HE6 as an example of a Putative target. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 250(1-2), pp.49-57. Gu, Y. et al. (2008).Multicenter contraceptive efficacy trial of injectable testosterone undecanoate in Chinese men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2008-1846 Holden, C.A. (2010).Determinants of male reproductive health disorders: the Men in Australia Telephone Survey. BMC Public Health, 10(96). Holden, C.A. et al. (2005).Sexual activity, fertility and contraceptive use in middle-aged and older men: Men in Australia, Telephone Survey (MATeS). Human Reproduction.doi:10.1093/humrep/dei307 Jones, R.K. et al. (2009).Better than nothing or savvy risk-reduction practice? The importance of withdrawal. Contraception, 79, pp. 407-410. Kogan, P. & Wald, M. (2014).Male contraception history and development. Urologic Clinics of North America, 41(1), pp. 145-161. Male Contraception Information Project. (2014).Heat Methods of Male Contraception. New Male Contraception. Retrieved on 30 September 2014 from http://www.newmalecontraception.org/archive/heat.htm Sharlip, I.D. et. (2012). Vasectomy: AUA guideline. The Journal of Urology, 188, pp. 2482- 2491. Sokal, D.C. & Labrecque, M. (2009). Effectiveness of Vasectomy Techniques, Urol Clin N Am, 36 (2009) 317–32. Trussell, J. (2011).Contraceptive failure in the United States. Contraception, 83, pp. 397-404. Tsuruta, M.K. (2012).Therapeutic ultrasound as a potential male contraceptive: Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 10(7). Vogelsong, K. M. (2005).Male contraceptives. Training and Research in Sexual Health. Read More