The Current Use and Potential Application of Electrophysiological-Based Neuroprosthetic - Coursework Example

MOLECULAR GENETICS by Student’s name Code+ course name Professor’s name University name City, State Date Contents Contents 2 1. Introduction 4 Ananya Mandal, ‘What is a Brain Tumor?’ News Medical, Apr 2, 2014 5 G Spenser, ‘Background on Mouse as a Model Organism,’ National Human Genome Research Institute, http://www.genome.gov/10005834, 2002, (accessed 13 February 2015). 6 2. Molecular Genetics 6 a. Introduction 6 b. Tools in Molecular Genetics 7 i. Forward Genetics 8 ii. Importance of Forward Genetics 9 iii. Reverse Genetics 10 Stéphane Biacchesi, ‘The Reverse Genetics Applied to Fish RNA Viruses’, Veterinary Research, vol. 42, 2011, p.12. 12 iv. Importance of Reverse Genetics 14 c. Approaches of Molecular Genetics 14 d. Methods of Molecular Genetics 16 I. Amplification 16 ii. Separation and Detection 16 iii. Expression 18 3. Brain Tumors 18 A. Introduction 18 b. Classification of Tumors 19 4. Relation between Molecular Genetics and Mouse Models 20 5. Conclusion 24 6. References 25 1. Introduction Molecular genetics can be viewed as a subdivision of heredities that focuses with genetic transmission and disparity on molecular level.1 It can also be viewed as a scientific branch that specializes with chemical organization and functioning, duplication and modifications of various particles that are essential in heredity.2 It is evident that Molecular Genetics specializes with DNA and RNA. Research in Molecular Genetics has involved both the theoretical and practical approaches.3 Initially, research was mainly on formulation of theories but lately there are various laboratory experiments that have been involved in the study.4 Most Biological research has been centered on genes as they are chief particles to help monitor various heredities and properties of human beings.5 Mandal6 explains brain tumors as unusual development of cells in the brain. These cells proliferate at a rate that is not managed by the systems. The reason behind this is that naturally after cells are worn out or old, they are repaired or destroyed. However, at times these cells can fail to undergo these processes due to modifications in the cells’ DNA. The cells later continue proliferating leading to multiplication of damaged cells. The mass of these cells is known as a tumor. Sometimes the tumor can lead to cancer. However, not all tumors are cancers but the converse is true. Tumor is the prior stage of cancer. There are various forms tumors as Mayo Clinic suggests.7 These types are briefly explained below: There are Gliomas that originate from spinal cord or the brain. Metastases which are tumors in the brain resulting from spread of cancer in other body pats. Meningiomas which arise as a result of infection by membranes engulfing the spinal cord and brain. Schwannomas that develop on the auditory system near the brain. Pituitary adenomas which originate from pituitary gland near the brain. There are medulloblastomas that mainly affect the children. These originate from posterior section of the brain progressing forward. Germ cells develop during childhood affecting reproductive system of children. Later, they spread to other parts of the body especially the brain. Mouse models are genetically engineered mice that are used to carry out laboratory experiments. A mouse is often preferred to carry out research as it is almost comparable to humans.8 This is on the aspect of physiology and genetic makeup. Further, a mouse has possessed various cells from different body parts similar to human beings. This is unlike the case of worms, yeast and flies as they lack various cells like cardiovascular, nervous among others. Finally, like humans mice are prone to human diseases like cancers, blood pressure and many more. This paper aims at explaining various technical approaches to Molecular Genetics. Further, it analyses mouse models and explains the reason why genetic knowledge has helped advance mouse models in tumor experimentation. Various theories in Molecular Genetics have been described as well as tumors analyzed. 2. Molecular Genetics a. Introduction The research in genetics is attributed to Gregor Medellin 1865.9 Through various intensive research experiments using peas, Mendel identified heredity of genetic materials. He discovered that the peas had a pair of alleles which were often combined to produce a single phenotype. His researches were a breakthrough in genetic study. Various researches were carried out by other scholars. It was later discovered that Nucleic Acid is responsible for heredity. This was conventionally named Deoxyribonucleic Acid shortened as DNA. Study of Molecular Genetics involves many activities. This involves tools, techniques and approaches. These activities are discussed in the subsequent sub-sections of this section. These are vital in understanding Molecular Genetics. b. Tools in Molecular Genetics The tools used in Molecular Genetics are both the forward and reverse genetics. Forward Genetics is also known as classical genetics. It aims at recognizing alterations that give out a certain physical characteristic. A mutagen is involved to catalyze the process. Later, the genes that have been transformed are identified through molecular processes. On other hand, reverse genetics involves mutating various known genes to produce a phenotype that is not identified. Through inductive methods, some genes are eliminated leading to gene knockout. Transgenic entities are formed that are not similar to the intended gene. Alternatively, DNA deletions can be randomly inducted and the desired gene chosen with or without interference of RNA. These tools of Molecular Genetics are described briefly below. They are the main ways through which genes are identified during experimentation. Therefore, they are essential in Molecular Genetics. i. Forward Genetics This is viewed as the conventional tool towards genetic study.10 The main intention of this too is to recognize a gene that controls particular activity. The mutant phenotypes give hints concerning the innately monitored activities and co-inherited hereditary highlighters show the area of genome having the liable gene. This approach aids in detaching and replicating the gene. During the process, the unsystematic modification of the genes is used alongside greatly functional methods of choosing the modified cells.11 A screen must be set up where expression of the highlighter gene is enhanced. Further, the genes should be mutated and mutant clones chosen. The picture below highlights the steps involved in the process. Picture 1: Steps involved in Forward Genetics12 ii. Importance of Forward Genetics Forward Genetics has various uses as highlighted below: This approach is the most effective in understanding human diseases.13 The reason behind this is the use of mice models. Mice after undergoing various mutations exhibit the behavior of human cells when facing those conditions. Attack of the cells by diseases and consequential behavior helps identify how the human cells would react under various conditions when faced by the same disease. This helps understand activity of diseases on human cells. The functioning of a gene is known before the process initiates.14 As the process involves use of a well confirmed gene to determine the mutated gene, the functioning of the gene is well known. This helps identify any deformities in the gene during the process. The process has no biasness. This is because phenotype is used ass the basic measurement. Unlike use of genotype, phenotype does not give strict expectations. This is because two cells can be phenotypically similar but genetically different. Therefore, use of this process is not biased. iii. Reverse Genetics Reverse genetics is also known as positional cloning. It is an approach that aims at investigating the activity of genes.15 Through various processes, some genes are eliminated from the initial specimen. As the elimination is undertaken, the reaction on the phenotype of the specimen is investigated. This approach is the contrast of forward genetics.16 There are a number of steps that are involved in the process. These steps help to realize effective output from the experiment. The steps are represented by the picture below: Picture 2: General steps involved in Reverse Genetics 17 Picture 3: Reverse Genetics steps in Fish RNA virus generation. 18 Picture 4: Reverse Genetics application in Development of Avian Flu Vaccine. 19 iv. Importance of Reverse Genetics There are several uses of this approach in investigating genes. Together with forward genetics it helps understand genes better.20 The method complements the knowledge available in forward genetics. This makes understanding of genes more effective and realistic. This approach helps in creating vaccines that are used to immunize people.21 With knowledge in reverse genetics, behavior of various genes is studied. These behaviors are use used to analyze and come up with the most effective vaccine for a given disease. Various vaccines like avian flu, influenza among others have been developed through this approach. After submitting the specimen into various processes, the final vaccine becomes effective in preventing illnesses and thus saving lives. c. Approaches of Molecular Genetics Treatment of genetic disorders is done through gene therapy. American Society of Gene and Cell Therapy defines gene therapy as a technique through which genetic makeup of an individual is adapted or amended to counter an inherited disease or body malfunction. Inn this process of treatment, there are no drugs used to modify the body. This activity, there are no drugs that are administered to initiate the genetic modification. All the activities are done without the usage of drugs. The therapy has helped in treatment of some genetic diseases like cancer, AIDS among others.22 Gale Encyclopedia suggests two types of gene therapy.23 These include the classical gene therapy that uses another virus that is introduced into the body to initiate the modification. The other type is non-classical gene therapy that prevents expression of the genes that lead to disease. In this type, the genes correct the deformity. Genetic transfer occurs in two ways. These include in vivo where the cells are cultured inside the target specimen. The cells to initiate a modification of genetic makeup are injected to the final target and modification commences. The other type is ex vivo where cells are developed outside the target specimen. After cells are mature, they are injected into the final target and modification of the genes begins in the final target. This happens in circumstances where cells can be cultured outside the body unlike for brain cells. d. Methods of Molecular Genetics There are three major methods that are used in molecular genetics. These methods include expression, separation and detection, and amplification. These methods are described below: I. Amplification Amplification refers to mass reproduction of DNA in the genes of cells. Genetic material can be reproduced in large number through two ways. One is polymerase reaction and the other cloning. In polymerase reaction, the high temperatures and Taq polymerase aid in the reaction. The DNA undergoes polymerization from initial blocks to form a number of DNAs. On other hand, cloning involves replication of genetic materials. This is made possible through a cloning vector. After being put into the vector, the specimen is then put into bacteria strain which replicates the DNA. ii. Separation and Detection In this approach, DNA and mRNA are identified and separated from the cells. Further, they are distinguished by separation. DNA can be produced through cell culture or DNA isolation. In cell culture, cells are developed in a host to be used in a target creature. On other hand, DNA isolation involves creating pure DNA. It is separated from other proteins and cell properties like lipids. An enzymatic solution is used for this purpose. The solution disintegrates lipids and other cell attributes except DNA. The solution is centrifuged and finally separated. There is also mRNA isolation that involves modification and separation of mRNA to obtain DNA. Messenger RNA undergoes various processes initially. It is then subjected to an enzymatic solution. Then mRNA is obtained. The mRNA undergoes reverse transcription by use of reverse transcriptase. This also helps inn creating DNA. iii. Expression Another way of molecular genetics is use of expression. In this approach, the information possessed by a gene is used to create other genes. It involves processes like transcription, splicing, modification and translation. Gene regulation is vital during cell differentiation. This is because it allows the cell to monitor and regulate various activities. This method is the basic idea that makes genotype produce phenotype. 3. Brain Tumors A. Introduction American Brain Tumor Association defines brain tumor as a bulk of superfluous cells that develop on the brain or spine.24 When the cells accumulate on the brain, these cells are known as brain tumor. This occurrence happens when the cells that were meant to be destroyed or repaired are not done so leading to their multiplication in the deformed state. Many cells that are deformed are consequently released in the brain. b. Classification of Tumors Brain tumors are classified according to the cells where they originate.25 This leads to classification of brain tumors into two major groups – gliomas and non-glial tumors. Gliomas develop from the glial cell. These cells provide supportive functions to other cells of nervous structure. They are either slow developing aggressive or very aggressive. The subtypes include: Astrocytoma which originates from astrocyte cells. Oligodendroglioma which develop from oligodendrocytes. They produce myelin which covers nerves. Brain stem glioma that develops from glial cells in brain stem. Ependymoma that develops in ependymal cells which cover brain passageways. Mixed tumors that are a combiinnation on two or more tumors. The non-glial tumors subtypes include: Acoustic schwannoma that originates from vestibular nerve. Craniopharyngioma that develops adjacent pituitary gland. Meningiomas that develops in meninges engulfing spinal cord and brain. Medulloblastoma that develop in granular cells of cerebellum. There no medically proven cause of tumors. However, there are various factors that progress tumors. These include radiations among others. Tumors can progress to cancer leading to untold suffering to the patients. 4. Relation between Molecular Genetics and Mouse Models The knowledge of Molecular genetics has greatly improved genetic research using mouse models. The reason why mouse models are preferred is that like human beings, they possess cells from various body parts like shoulders and others. Other models like yeast do not have cells from the nervous system. These cells are essential to fully study the human bodies. However, the lack of these cells affects the whole experiment. Experiment would have been incomplete without them. This makes them unfit for use in studying human systems and diseases. Through knowledge on Molecular Genetics, mice undergo various mutations. These mutations are induced to help study various diseases found in human body systems. The reason why mice are subjected to mutations is to make them seem like human beings. As mice may not have some diseases but are susceptible to them, genetic mutation catalyzes the acquisition of these diseases. Cells are cultured and injected into the body of the mice. The process of culturing involves Molecular Genetics. Study of brain tumor for instance has been advanced through mutation of mice. Mice models are injected with cultured genes that lead to reproduction of mice having the deformities. The offspring of mutated mice are used in the laboratories to carry out various researches in relation to human beings. Through various laboratory experiments, treatments for the cancer are suggested. Had the mice been used in research without being mutated, the experiments would not have been productive. The reason behind this view is that the mice would not have acquired some diseases that were needed to be tested in the whole laboratory process such as cancers and tumors of the brain among others. Therefore, mutation which is as a result of Molecular Genetics knowledge has been vital in the laboratory process. It would be unethical to carry out the laboratory test on individuals. The failure of the test would lead to expensive lawsuits and possible loss of life. Affected individuals can sue the scientists that carried the tests leading to halt of the research process. It can also alter the genetic makeup of an individual leading to long term illnesses. Affected individuals can develop terminal illnesses or complications that can cut short their lives. On other hand, they can develop long term incurable illnesses that affect their way of life. This is the reason why animal models are used in research. This has further steered medical research on an ethical path. These Molecular Genetics researches have really improved the health and medical sector. It is through them that behavior of diseases has been studied.26 Laboratory experiments involving mutated mice have been used to learn how various diseases act on human bodies. These diseases include the cancers and influenza among others. This has given scientists profound firsthand knowledge and experience of human diseases. This consequently has led to development of vaccines that help prevent occurrence of such diseases. Vaccines have been developed through various laboratory tests involving the infected mutated mice. After various chemical experiments with various drug substances and virus developments, vaccines that prevent the occurrence off intended diseases are developed. These vaccines after successful test are used to curb illnesses in the globe. They are then used on target population for prevention of the intended diseases. This is done through vaccination programs.27 Had the vaccines not been developed through Molecular Genetics approaches, vaccination programs would have been a failure. Therefore mouse models used in Molecular Genetics have greatly helped the medicine sector and public policies too. Molecular Genetics has also greatly helped in developed of drugs. Complete treatments for various diseases have been discovered through this approach. Mice models are mutated and infected with intended human disease. This process involves use of Molecular Genetics. After infecting the mice with the intended diseases, they are subjected into further laboratory experiments. Through various laboratory testing and identification of proteins causing illnesses, remedies for these proteins are discovered. These remedies are used to create a curative compound that addresses that particular disease. Molecular Genetics has greatly improved clinical practices. Through various testing of drugs on mice, it has minimized usage of drugs that would have adverse effects on humans. Drugs usage without prior testing can bring untold complications. Often, a complication arises and the scientists have no prior experience with the complication. However, with a prior test the complication can be handles effectively. The testing involves use on mice models mutated through Molecular Genetics approaches. This has helped to preserve human life as well as advance scientific knowledge. Had there been no models to test these drugs, humans would have acted as the models which would be a critical situation. It is therefore evident that mouse model usage in Molecular Genetics has greatly advanced the medical practice. Molecular Genetic has also helped in identifying various biochemical compounds of humans. Through study of genes and their activities, scientists have been able to identify various reactions and systems in the body that are viral for health. Through submitting the genes to diverse tests, scientists identify the activities and properties off these genes. This helps in reproduction among others. People can determine the kind of children they would want to bear by selecting genes for their offspring. This helps to raise children that parents feel comfortable with. All this had been successful through use of mouse models. Mice that have been mutated through Molecular Genetics approaches have been used to carry out these various researches. Had they not been used the experiments would not have been effective. Hence, the mouse models are a great tool in advance off reproduction technologies used in medical practice. Brain tumors and cancers have been an issue in the society. Through Molecular Genetics, various remedies have been fond for this complex disease. Mice are mutated and used in identifying various approaches to treatment of the brain tumors. After subjecting the mice models to various laboratory tests, solutions to brain tumors are gotten. This has greatly helped contemporary society to handle the disease. Had individuals been used in testing the brain tumors complications would have been gotten. Brain is a vital organ in human beings. Failure of any part of it might crumble the whole human system. Therefore, use of mouse models has greatly helped alleviate this pitfall as well as accelerating medical research. 5. Conclusion Molecular Genetics is important in medicine and health sector. Through study of genes, scientists have discovered various ways of handling the terminal illnesses. A large number of vaccines has been developed which aids in preventing the occurrence of the diseases. Further, functioning of genes has been understood through this approach. Molecular Genetics has aided scientists come up with ways of treating cancers and tumors. It is through this approach that complex diseases like brain tumor have been greatly managed in contemporary society. Isolation of Molecular Genetics in health sector would have led to critical issues. Such diseases would not have been managed in modern world. Therefore, Molecular Genetics is a very important field in the treatment of diseases and medical research. It is the basis of medical engineering in our modern society. 6. 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