DNA Replication, Carcinogenesis, Cancer Trends in Australia, and Microscopy of Human Cell - Statistics Project Example

Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Biology report 2 Part A: DNA Replication and Carcinogenesis 2 1.0.Introduction 2 1.1.DNA replication 2 1.2.DNA replication defects 4 1.3.Causes of cancer 5 1.4.Cancer treatment 6 1.5.Normal and cancer cell difference 7 Part B: Cancer analysis in Australia 7 2.0.Diagnosis 8 2.1.Deaths 8 2.2.Survival prevalence 9 2.3.Hospitalization 10 2.4.Trends of cancer hypothesis 10 2.5.Solution recommended 11 Part C: Cell Microbiology 11 Part D: Conclusion 12 References 14 Biology report Part A: DNA Replication and Carcinogenesis 1.0. Introduction Griffiths, Wessler, Lewontin and Caroll, (2008) argues that, DNA repair in the body is a critical process. This is because DNA is vulnerable to unprompted destruction. In fact thousands of DNAs are destroyed on a daily basis. This arises because of replication errors, spontaneous chemical modifications and oxidative radical generation. Cellular DNA is quite prone to carcinogens as well as being a target for various anticancer agents. In addition, most DNA susceptible to cancer has encoded factors; damage response of DNA (DDR) and DNA repair encoded factors. Such genes hence, are said to have oncogenic defects which makes mutator phenotype arise in future cells generation. This process of cell development makes the cells not to follow the normal processes of homeostatic. Many cells which are inherited have their root in DNA repair of genetic factors. This report covers DNA and cancer issues, cancer trends in Australia, microscopy of human cell and end with a conclusion. 1.1. DNA replication DNA replication is inevitable if cells have to continue dividing and pass traits. DNA replication is a process that occurs naturally in the body of all living organism. It results when the cells make a copy of the original DNA. To produce more DNAs, the double stranded DNA originally in the living organism is used as a template in this process. DNA replication occurs following a sequence of biological events within a cell. The replication process involves unwinding of the double helix of the DNA strand at certain points referred to as replication origins. The origins might be as many as thousands in a single DNA. Replication origins provides sites for two replication forks to start duplicating outward eventually joining with another fork (Gauthier, Herrick and Bechhoefer, 2010, 218104-1). The process of replication is catalysed by enzymes helicase, DNA-polymerase and DNA-primase as the hydrogen bonds within the DNA molecule separate. That is guanine separating from cytosine and adenine from thymine. Below is figure 1: showing unwound structure of DNA. The main DNA replication stages are four: Initiation: where unwinding of double helix portion occurs, elongation: involves assembling the two strands of DNA newly formed, in termination stage: helixies are created through reforming of new DNA molecules and proofreading and correction takes places throughout the replication process to ensure the new forming DNA is free of errors which may arise in the process. Figure 1: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/297px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 1.2. DNA replication defects Gauthier, Herrick and Bechhoefer, (2010, 218104-3) during the replication process the DNA molecules differentiation takes some pauses. It is at these sites of natural pause followed by DNA replication process that a fork may stall or slow. Such fork stalls are likely to arouse global or local checkpoints in turn stopping replication. Where there is lack of the activity of checkpoint the replication program is as well slowed by fork stalls. In cells of the embryo, fork delays are likely to lead to death of the cell. This is because cell division decouples replication. In somatic or mature cells, damage of the DNA is a key step towards cancer development. When several endogenous fork pauses occur during replication this is referred to as amplicon or genome. DDR-inactivated cells is another sequence that expresses Ras oncogene. The sequence is associated with fork pausing increase. This is the first step towards development of cancer. 1.3. Causes of cancer There are many causes of cancer (Cancer in Australia, 2001). Cancer can begin from any tissue of the body. What leads to cancer in a certain tissues of the body may as well not affect another. In addition, not all persons exposed to a common causing agent develop cancer cells. Carcinogen is defined as any substance when used or exposed to causes cancer. Inhaling tobacco smoke can lead to cancer of the lungs. Melanoma is likely to develop on a person who exposes his legs to sun. Age is another risk factor where the old generation is at risk than the young generation. This occurs due to cell division mistakes increment as people age. Person with faulty genes are prone to cancer. BRCA2 and BRCA1 are gene mutations that occur during gene formation and if in existence predispose a person to breast cancer. Persons with reduced immune system are at risk of developing different forms of cancers. Such cases include person with HIV/AIDS, undergone organ transplant etc common cancers for such group of person include stomach, liver, lymphomas, anal or genital and cervical cancer caused by viruses. Lifestyle factors like reduced physical activity, diet and tobacco use expose people to cancer. Some diets such as additive cause direct cancer cell development while lack of physical activity exposes different individuals to cancer. Bacterial infection such as helicobacter pylori exposes individual to stomach cancer. 1.4. Cancer treatment NGPDT (Next Generation Photodynamic Therapy) used for various cancer with greater effects and minimal invasive procedures. NextGeneration PDThttp://www.nextgenerationpdt.com/ Chemoradiation treatment Chemotherapy, radiation therapy surgery (Brasiuniene and Juozaityte 2007 p9) 1.5. Normal and cancer cell difference Hormones and enzymes control almost all the chemical reactions in the body. Their modification sends messages that alter the normal cell process. 1. Structure Cancer cells Normal cells Cancer cells either acquire outrageous chromosomes numbers or develop a different gene or DNA structure Chromosomes and genes DNA procure their activities normally Formation of cells without order or control continues. Unwanted cells develop to a tumor Cells are produced with orderliness to create more cells when required by the body. 2. Energy Krebs cycle system is defective and unable or provides little energy for cells Krebs cycle system is involved in providing cells with 70% of the energy they need Glycolysis system provides almost the entire required energy for cancer cells Glycolysis system provides at-most 20% of the energy required by cells Most energy is derived with little or no oxygen Oxygen is used to provide energy the cells need 3. Blood vessels Cells lack a built-in system of blood vessels and they require extra amino acids to be able to build one There exist a built in system of blood vessel within the cells 4. Growth factors The cells are over active, require more food and have over produced. Though, similar to cells of cancer, they have a balanced chemical to carry on with normal activity 5. Functions Under activity or over activity is common in hormones and enzymes Hormones and enzymes carry out their activity normally and in balanced manner Accessed (http://www.polymva.com/pdf/THE-DIFFERENCE-BETWEEN-NORMAL-CELLS.pdf) Part B: Cancer analysis in Australia 2.0. Diagnosis Commonly cancers diagnosed in Australia according to the (AIHW 2012) data were as shown in figure 2 below Lung cancer was 11,280, skin melanoma 12,510, breast 14,680, bowel 15,840, prostate 18,560. Overall 120,710 were newly diagnosed cases with 53,460 being women and 67,260 males. 2.1. Deaths In 2010 42,844 people died from cancer with females being 18,516 and males 24,328. Lung was the key leader in death for 8,099, pancreas the least with 2, 434. The rests were breast 2,864, prostrate 3,235 and bowel 3,982. See figure below. 2.2. Survival prevalence Females and males 2006-2010 were found to have a survival chance of 67% and 65% respectively. Women with breast cancer were the most surviving group identified by the year ending 2007. See the figure below 2.3. Hospitalization In the years 2010-2011, every 10 persons admitted in hospital 1 suffered from cancer; with 880,432 cases admitted. NMSC was the leading with 95,312. See the figure below. 2.4. Trends of cancer hypothesis Therefore, many persons in Australia suffer from NMSC and prostate cancer in Australia. Breast and skin cancer persons survive most, with lung and bowel cancer patients dyeing at high rate though the incidence of the lung cancer are few compared to prostrate and bowel cancer. Cancer in Australia (2001) this could be explained that there is a high and uncontrolled tobacco or bhang use in Australia leading to lung cancer. Failure to go for check up early enough leads to deterioration of the condition subsequently leading to little chances of management survival if the cases are discovered at later stages. Diet could be another reason for increase bowel incidence and deaths. Poor diet where majority of population lead a sedentary life, are obese and overweight as well with little information as among the indigenous population entailing health lifestyle could be used to justify this fact. Most women visit the hospital with little signs and sysmptoms for different health examination. This could explain why there are more cases surviving the breast cancer despite it being a 3rd prevalence in the region. Prostate cancer is highly diagnosed and has high death rate being third in the cluster. This could be explained by the fact that most men visit the hospital when sickly as they are afraid of revealing their pain especially regarding their reproduction system. Although the death rate is low, this could be explained that either some men get healed in the process, but other cases remain untracked as men fear being associated with some cases and therefore not possible to have a congruent data. All in all men died most according to the data collected in general from all cancer cases. This can be explained by the fact that men remain ignorant on most of information regarding cancer exposure, diagnosis and treatment. In addition most workplaces where men are involved could expose them to carcinogens such as radiations. 2.5. Solution recommended Providing information to the general population ( Di Marco, Priestly and Buckett, 1998) would be vital regarding cancer and cancer causes and prevention. The general population should be encouraged to visit clinics for check up in case signs related to cancers are noticed early in time or with no signs. Different health organizations, NGOs should come up and collaborate in educating, screening and making follow up for those found to suffer from cancer. Families should be encouraged to provide information of persons they know suffering from cancer to allow early treatment and management. Factors that expose the person and the general population to cancer should be put under restriction of consumption. Part C: Cell Microbiology Barr and Bunnel, (2009)says: i. Use the lowest magnification objective ii. Using coarse adjustment knob move the stage to ensure it is near the lens iii. On the stage place a slide and use clips to hold it iv. Move away the stage applying coarse adjustment knob as you observe through the ocular v. Use the diaphragm to reduce or increase incoming light through the stage vi. Ensure the object can be clearly seen vii. Use fine adjustment knob as you move from 100x, 400x and 1000x total magnification by rotating the revolving nosepiece. Using a wet mount i. Scrap lightly using a toothpick inside your cheek ii. Using a microscope slide mix the scrap with methylene blue drop, stir and use coverslip to cover it iii. On the microscope stage place the slide. Look for the cells starting with low power and move to high power iv. Identify and record the parts of the cell Part D: Conclusion DNA is the basic maker of human cell. DNA replication is inevitable in all living organism. During the replication process the DNA process can be altered leading to abnormal cell development and consequently cancer. There are different causes of cancer starting from diet, lack of exercises, aging, exposure to radiation, genes and bacterial and viral attacks. With cancer incidences of cancer different methods have been researched and deployed to fight cancer such as chemoradiation among others. In Australia cancer is on the alarming rate causing death with lung and prostate cancer on the lead. With microscopy invention examination of cell differentiation has been found feasible. References AIHW (2012) Report retrieved http://www.aihw.gov.au/cancer/cancer-in-australia/ 1/4/2014 Barr V. A. and Bunnell S. C. (2009). Interference Reflection Microscopy. Current Protocols in Cell Biology 45:4.23.1-4.23.19. Brasiuniene B and Juozaityte 2007. The Effect of Combined Treatment Methods on Survival and Toxicity in Patients with Pancreatic Cancer 43(9) department of oncology, Kaunas university of medicine, Lithuania Cancer in Australia. Retrieved http://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=6442454487 1/4/2014. Di Marco P.N., Priestly B. G. and Buckett K. J. (1998). Carcinogenic risk assessment. Can we harmonise? Toxicology Letters, vol 102-103: 241-246. Gauthier MG. Herrick J. and Bechhoefer J. (2010). Defects and DNA replication. Physical Review Letters 218104-1-4. Griffiths, A.J.F., Wessler S.R., Lewontin R.C. and Caroll S.B., (2008). Introduction to Genetic Analysis. DNA: Structure And Replication, WH Freeman and Co. Normal and Cancer Cell Difference retrieved http://www.polymva.com/pdf/THE-DIFFERENCE-BETWEEN-NORMAL-CELLS.pdf 1/4/2014. Read More