The Structure of the Male Reproductive System - Case Study Example

Sub Department Reproduction case study The structure of the male reproductive system The male reproductive system consists of a sequence of organs that are utilized during procreation as well as sexual intercourse. Its primary organs consist of the gonads (sex glands) that are tasked with semen production. The external parts are made up of the scrotum, testicles and penis. The various organs of the male reproductive system are adapted for the functions below; production, maintenance and transportation of male reproductive cells (sperms) as well as semen which is a protective fluid, discharging of sperms inside the female reproductive organ, production as well as secretion of male sex hormones. The penis is the organ used for sexual intercourse and is made up of 3 parts which are; the root-used for attachment to the abdomen wall, the shaft or body as well as the glans-the cone shaped part of the penis. Naturally, the glans also known as the penis head has a loose outer covering known as foreskin (at times removed through circumcision).Urethra’s opening which is the tube tasked with the transportation of urine and semen, is at the end of the glans penis. In addition, the penis also has numerous sensitive nerve endings. The shape of the penis is cylindrical and is made up of 3 internal chambers which consist of unique, sponge-like tissue. This erectile tissue is made up of numerous large spaces which are filled with blood whenever the man is sexually excited. On filling with blood, the penis becomes erect and rigid, facilitating the penetration into a woman’s vulva during intercourse. Additionally, the skin of penis is elastic and loose to hold changes in the size of the penis while erect. The scrotum-is the loose skin that is pouch-like and hangs loosely behind the penis and holds the testes/testicles, in addition to numerous blood vessels and nerves. The scrotum serves a protective role and offers controlled environment for the testes. For effective development of the sperm, the testes should slightly lower than the temperature of the body. Unique muscles lining the scrotum wall facilitate its contraction and relaxation, edging the testes nearer to the body for protection as well as warmth or far away from the body for cooling the temperature. Testicles also known as the testes are oval-like organs that lie within the scrotum and are protected at either side by a structure known as the spermatic cord. The function of the testes is manufacturing of testosterone, the fundamental male sex hormone as well as sperm production. The testes contain coiled masses of tubes known as seminiferous tubules; responsible for sperm production via a process referred to as spermatogenesis. Epididymis is a coiled, long tube which rests on the backside of every testicle and assists in the transportation as well as storage of sperm cells that the testes produce. Epididymis is also tasked with the bringing of the sperm to maturity because the sperm that come out from the testes are not mature and hence not able to fertilize. Contractions during sexual intercourse force the sperm out through the vas deferens. The internal reproductive organs comprise of vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands. Female reproductive system The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, vulva, vagina, mammary glands as well as the breasts. All these organs are tasked with the responsibility of producing and transporting gametes as well as the manufacture of sex hormones. In addition, the female reproductive system is involved in ova fertilization by sperm and aids in the development of the foetus during pregnancy as well as infancy. The following are the external parts that constitute the female reproductive system; Labia majora-or “large lips” protect and enclose the rest of the external reproductive organs. Labia minora also known as small lips does have a wide variety of shapes and sizes and lie just outside the large lips, in addition to surrounding the vagina openings as well as the urethra. The labia majora skin is very fragile and can be easily swollen and irritated. Bartholin’s glands are situated adjacent to the vaginal opening on every side and secret mucus/fluid. Clitoris-forms where the 2 labia minora converge at the clitoris which is a tiny sensitive protrusion comparable to the males’ penis. A fold of skin covers the clitoris known as the prepuce which is identical to the foreskin of the males. The clitoris is very sensitive just like the penis to any stimulation and can be erect. The female internal reproductive organs comprise of; Vagina which is the canal joining the cervix to the external body and is also referred to as the birth canal. Ovaries-are oval shaped tiny glands that are situated on every side of the uterus and are tasked with the production of hormones and eggs. Fallopian tubes-are thin tubes attached to the upper region of the uterus and act as the passageways for the ova (egg cells) to pass through from the ovaries to the uterus. This is also where the sperm fertilizes the egg. After fertilization, the egg travels to the uterus and consequently implants itself to the uterine lining. 1.2 The female menstrual cycle Females mature enough for reproduction (11-16 years) undergo hormonal activity cycles that repeat after every one month interval. The menstrual cycle comes from the phrase menstru which implies “monthly” .With each cycle, the female’s body gets ready for possible pregnancy ,whether the woman intends to get pregnant or not. This periodic shedding of the uterine lining is known as menstruation. The normal menstrual cycle may take approximately 28 days and takes place in phases: first and foremost is the follicular phase (egg development), secondly is the ovulatory phase (releasing of the egg) and thirdly the luteal phase (stage which marks the reduction of hormonal levels if fertilization of the egg does not occur). Basically, there are 4 key hormones that are in play during the menstrual cycle: progesterone, follicle-stimulating hormone, estrogen and luteinizing hormone. The following is a detailed discussion of the menstrual cycle phases; The follicular phase This is the phase that begins on the first day of a woman’s period and during this stage the following takes place; there is the release of 2 hormones from the brain which travels via the blood vessels to the ovaries which include luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).It is these hormones that are tasked with the stimulation of around 15-20 eggs in the ovaries, each one in its own “shell” referred to as a follicle. In addition, these hormones also trigger an increased production of the hormone estrogen. Consequently as the estrogen levels rise, it gradually shuts off production of the FSH, a delicate balance that facilitates the body in limiting the number of follicles that will get the eggs ready to be released. With progress in follicular phase, a single follicle in one ovary turns out to be dominant and progresses to maturity, suppressing all other follicles which consequently stop developing and die. Thus, this dominant follicle goes on producing estrogen. Ovulatory phase This is also known as ovulation and begins around 14 days after the start of the follicular phase. It can be called the midpoint of menstrual with the following menstrual cycle beginning 14 days afterwards. The following events take place during this phase; estrogen levels rise due to the dominant follicle triggering a surge in the quantity of luteinizing hormone that the brain produces causing an egg to be released by the dominant follicle from the ovary. As releasing of the egg (ovulation) occurs, finger-like projections located at the end of the fallopian tubes (fimbriae) capture it, effectively sweeping the egg inside the tube. There is also an increased thickness and amount of mucus that the cervix produces .Were the woman to have sex during this period, the man’s sperm is captured by the thick mucus ,nourishing it and helping it to progress towards the egg to facilitate fertilization. The luteal phase This phase starts immediately after ovulation and comprises the following steps; the empty ovarian follicle after releasing its egg develops into another structure known as the corpus luteum charged with the secretion of both progesterone and estrogen. Progesterone is charged with the preparation of the fertilized egg for implantation. If sex has occurred, and fertilization effectively taken place (conception) the egg so fertilized (embryo) travels via the fallopian tube for implantation at the uterian wall and the woman is now regarded pregnant. On the other hand, if fertilization does not occur, it passes via the uterus and since the uterus lining is no longer required to support the pregnancy, it consequently breaks down and sheds, marking the beginning of the next menstrual cycle (Seli, 2011). Blood tests are necessary for Carina and Sam required so that the doctor can determine the level of hormones in the couple. For Sam blood testing will seek to establish the amount of testosterone as well as other male hormones responsible for overall male genetic material. Blood tests will also help in establishing the possibility of a genetic defect responsible for causing defect and in other cases, blood tests are recommended to establish the reason the sperm is not fertilizing the egg effectively. For Carina, the blood tests include ovulation testing which is done to determine hormonal levels which will establish whether Carina is ovulating. Other blood tests on Carina will determine the amounts of ovulatory hormones together with those of pituitary and thyroid hormones that are tasked with controlling of reproductive processes. A physical examination on Sam should focus on his genitalia such as the penis, testes, scrotum, vas deferens and spermatic cord, seminal vesicles, epididymis and prostrate so as to ascertain whether his genitalia has any physical defect. Physical examination on Carina will focus on general examination which should pay special attention to hormone deficiency signs as well as symptoms of other conditions that may impair fertility. A pelvic examination assists in identifying reproductive tract abnormalities as well as symptoms of decreased hormone levels. Sam’s past medical and health history are needed so as to determine his childhood growth as well as development ,sexual history like infections and illnesses, sexual progress during puberty , medications, surgeries as well as exposure to specific environmental agents such as radiation ,alcohol, chemotherapy ,toxic chemicals as well as any past fertility testing. These tests will assist the doctor to establish any possible injury to the reproductive system. Carina’s past history will also offer clues for the cause of her infertility. Her childhood development, sexual history, sexual progress during puberty, infections and illnesses, medications used, surgeries ,exposure to specific environmental agents such as radiation, alcohol, chemotherapy or any other toxic chemicals. Past fertility evaluations will help the doctor to come up with a detailed conclusion. These tests are important any injury to their respective reproductive systems will greatly affect their child bearing capabilities (Seli, 2011). 1.3 Fertilisation and implantation Fertilisation can be described as the process that involves fusing of the sperm nucleus with the ovum nucleus. Sperm should have been deposited within the vagina not earlier than 72 hours before ovulation or within 24 hours after ovulation has taken place. Thus the short “opportunity window” is due to the fact that the ovum and sperm have a short life span and both quickly die if they fail to meet and fuse within that given period. After ovulation, the ovum is usually swept by the fimbriae of the fallopian tube and remains alive and functions fully for around 12 to 24 hours. The sperm usually swims via the cervix up to the uterus and up to the fallopian tubes after being deposited in the vagina. Fertilisation then takes place inside the fallopian tubes. Its only one sperm that makes it to the ovum and immediately after penetration the cell membrane of the ovum becomes resistant and no other sperm can penetrate the ovum. The zygote (fertilsed ovum) stays in the fallopian tube for around 72 hours and develops quickly within this time (Seli, 2011). After fertilisation, the embryo (fertilized egg) develops inside the fallopian tubes within the first 72 hours, travels down to the uterus and after 5 days it will have developed into a blastocyst which is a hollow ball made of cells that surround a cyst-like cavity. Consequently, the blastocyst disintegrates free from its shell and is now ready for adherence to the endometrium surface. The blastocyst then starts secreting human chorionic gonadotriphin (hCG) hormone that informs the corpus luteum to go on with production of progesterone (Seli, 2011). Naomi could be having miscarriages because of chromosomal abnormalities. Thus mismatched chromosomes represent about 60% of most miscarriages. Thus at times, when the sperm and the egg meet, one of them may be faulty, implying that the chromosomes align themselves properly. In such a case as that, the ensuing embryo usually gets chromosomal abnormality with the pregnancy resulting in a miscarriage. In addition, if Naomi has a uterus that is “abnormally” divided or shaped-mostly known as uterine septum then it means that miscarriage may take place since the embryo either cannot implant or the moment it implants fails to receive the nourishment it requires to thrive. Thus an incompetent or weakened cervix is another issue that can result in miscarriage since towards the end of the third month the foetus has become big enough that the cervix begins to bulge and if it is weak, then cannot longer hold the foetus anymore. The other cause of Naomi’s miscarriage could be immunologic disorders. Thus a fertilised egg could signal the mother’s body that it should treat the fertilized egg as a foreign object implying that the antibodies will start attacking their own tissue, comprising the embryo and this results in a miscarriage. 1.4 Stages of pregnancy A pregnancy is made up of around 40 weeks which are broken up into 3 trimesters. The first trimester starts from week 1 to week 12, second trimester starts from 13th week to 28th week and then third trimester starts from 29th to 40th week. The woman’s body undergoes a lot of changes during the first trimester with hormonal changes affecting nearly all the organ systems in the body. There is formation of 2 membranes around the embryo that is developing with one side fingers probing into the uterine wall lining to become placenta. Normally, the placenta is a spongy like tissue that is tasked with the exchange of gases, wastes and nutrients between the blood of the mother and as well as embryo’s. It is important to note that the mother’s blood is distinct from that of the embryo inside the placenta. Another membrane known as the amniotic fluid begins forming around the embryo and usually the umbilical cord attaches placenta to the developing embryo. The embryo as at the end of the fourth week has grown to the length of around a quarter of a centimeter. In addition, the spinal cord, brain, throat as well as the nervous system have started to develop. The embryo by the end of the 8th week is 3 cm in length and the ears, nose and legs are clearly visible. Thus, the period having stopped is followed by other changes such as extreme tiredness, swollen and tender breasts with nipples starting to stick out. Stomach upsets are common popularly known as morning sickness, distaste/cravings for specific foods, headaches, weight loss/gain, mood swings and frequent urination. The second trimester is usually easier than the first one according to most women and as the 12th week comes to an end the foetus has grown to around 8 cm in length. Morning sickness by this time has reduced or disappeared all together and as the baby develops, the abdomen protrudes and stretches and actually by the fourth month, the foetus can be felt by the mother for the first ever. The woman’s weight will have increased by about 5kg with 1kg being the weight of the baby. The entire body structure of the foetus by 16th week is formed and sucking motions may start and it is now easy to establish the baby’s sex. By this time the foetus would be about 14 cm in length and weighs about 150 grams. By the time the 20th week comes to an end, the skin has turned pink with the heartbeat being heard using a stethoscope. The length of the foetus is by now about 20cm and its weight about 300 grams. The eyelids by the 24th week are open and the skin has now turned red and usually wrinkled. The length of the foetus is now around 25-30cm and its weight about 500-600 grams (Newman, 2012). The third trimester involves the last 3 months of the pregnancy and the size of the woman by now has rapidly increased and by now movement of the foetus has become common. The mother will have increased gained weight by 4 kg but this varies considerably depending on the size and race of the mother as well as the baby’s sex. The body and the head become more proportionate as week 28 comes to an end. The foetus by this time has moved and its head down towards the cervix. By this time, the foetus is 28cm in length and weighs about 1 kg. If a baby happens to be born at this stage, it can survive under intensive care. By the end of 32nd, the foetus will be approximately 35-40 cm in length and its weight will be about 3kg (Newman, 2012). Birth process In late pregnancy, the foetus normally positions itself head deep inside the pelvic cavity. Thus, the process of birth is also referred to as labour and is broken down into 3 stages. The first stage mostly starts with the woman experiencing uterus contractions and is basically the longest stage and for the first birth might last from 10-16 hours. Firstly, the contractions are mild and short and take place at 10-20 minutes intervals. As the birth goes on, the contractions become more frequent at intervals of 3-5 minutes, are more intense and last longer. The cervix early in this stage becomes dilated up to 4 cm and finally to 10cm .It is also during this stage that the amniotic sac surrounding the baby ruptures something known as the ‘breaking of waters’. The second labour stage starts when the cervix is entirely dilated with the baby moving further down inside the birth canal or vagina. Normally, the head of the baby comes out first and this stage can last 30 minutes to 2 hours, even though this differs and ends with the birth of the baby. During this period, the woman can push actively to assist the baby come out. The final stage of the birth involves contractions that go on after the birth of the child. Consequently, the placenta (after birth) finally separates from the uterine wall and passes out through the vagina usually after one hour of giving birth (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Shola’s morning sickness could be as a result of sudden rise in estrogen which is known to rise speedily during early stages of pregnancy. Estrogen also leads to an improved sense of smell as well as sensitivity to odours .In addition, the Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone rapidly rises during the early stages of pregnancy which may lead to increased rates of vomiting and nausea (Newman, 2012). There are several risks that are associated with German measles or rubella which is a dangerous and contagious infection and is especially serious if one catches it during the beginning twenty weeks of pregnancy. Thus rubella may lead to stillbirth, miscarriage or serious birth defects in foetus such as brain damage, hearing loss as well as heart defects. A breach position can be described as a situation whereby the foetus is positioned in a bottom-down way. A breech position occurs when the baby does not turn its head down naturally and may need to be delivered through a C-section. An external cephalic version procedure would have corrected this by having the doctor use their hand to try and turn the baby in the correct position. Shola may need a C-section which is an artificial method of delivery that is done through incisions made in on the stomach of the mother. C-section will be highly recommended especially if labour is not going on well normally, the baby is not in frank or complete breech position or in instances where umbilical cord gets out before the baby (Mayo Clinic, 2014). 2.1 Growth and development of human being Growth normally is a lifetime process that begins with one cell. It starts by the union of one cell to another from both sexes. Great growth is experienced for the first year through the teenage years. In addition, these are the phases of life that an individual passes through; firstly is infancy, secondly is early childhood, thirdly is childhood, fourthly is late childhood, fifthly is adolescence and finally adulthood (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Infancy-this stage starts from birth up to the eighteenth month. Physically, the bones are flexible and soft and the baby is learning how to stand, crawl as well as sit. Mental changes on the other hand comprise of crying of the baby to get what s/he wants and starts recognizing siblings and parents (Newman, 2012). Early childhood begins from the 18th month up to 3 years and at this stage the baby learns how to talk and walk, with legs and arms getting longer. Mentally, the child begins learning how to go to the toilet and is not prepared to play or share interactively with the rest. The next stage is childhood which starts from 3 to 6 years and the baby begins losing milk teeth, learns how to behave in a group setting, learns how to play interactively and make friends. In late childhood, the child’s appetite increases and the sexual maturity starts. The child gets high-level reasoning skills with decreasing level of self-centeredness. S/he also chooses friends of same sex. The next stage is adolescence and is a period of slow change that begins from childhood to adulthood and is characterized by fast physical growth and the body begins resembling that of an adult. The young adult also starts questioning oneself and begins enjoying participating in adult talks or conversations. The teenager starts quickly feeling emotional lonely and sees people as having needs similar to theirs. They seriously take their friend’s views as being very important (Newman, 2012). The last stage is known as adulthood and starts from the twenties onwards and there is a gradual weakening of the 5 senses as well as slow calcium loss in the bones. The bones become especially brittle and joints starts to stiffen and muscles begin weakening. Case study Kyle’s food intake may affect her growth and development in that it influences her physical growth together with health, psychological as well as emotional development. She therefore needs to eat a balanced diet that will supply her with all the healthy nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and adequate clean drinking water are all required for Kyle’s proper growth and development. An illness may affect Kyle’s growth and development in various ways. Thus such diseases as lung, digestive, heart and kidney diseases may result in delayed growth because of the damage or injury they may cause the child’s main growth and development organs. On the other hand, hormones are like chemical messengers that the body uses. They are released by various glands and circulated in the bloodstream, affecting everything ranging from metabolism to growth and development as well as moods and blood pressure. Almost every hormone affects growth to some degree; however there are some that have specifically essential functions in the growth and development of a child. These very important hormones include growth hormone made by the pituitary gland, thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland, androgens male sex hormones produced by adrenal glands such as the testosterone and estrogens which are female sex hormones mainly produced by ovaries such as the estradiol released by the girls’ ovaries and are responsible for development of breasts as well as uterus maturation which takes place at puberty. The other important growth hormones comprise of insulin and cortisol. 2.2 Ageing results due to accumulation of damaged cells, tissues and molecules resulting in function loss in addition to increased death risk. The process of ageing poses challenges since it is complex and probably there are strong interactions that occur between various body tissues. For example decreased functioning of the kidney is a danger factor for problems in numerous other tissues. There are numerous effects of ageing which comprise of muscle shrinking and loss of mass, decrease in the size and number of muscle fibres, reduction in the water amount of tendons resulting in the stiffening of muscles, reduction in handgrip strength and the heart muscle weakens and does not propel huge blood quantities readily to the body making a person to get tired quickly. In addition, there is a decrease in bone mineral content making them to become more fragile and less dense. Loss of bone mass results in osteoporosis which affects both men and women. Ligaments also become less supple leading to reduced flexibility. Finally there is restricted joint motion and reduced flexibility due to changes in ligaments and tendons and as the cushioning cartilage starts breaking down from long use, inflammation of joints takes place and arthritis sets in (Farley & McLafferty, 2011). Some of the tests that William will be subjected to include; cholesterol screening as well as heart disease prevention which basically comprises of checking the level of his cholesterol. In addition, William should have his blood pressure screened, lung cancer screening as well as colon cancer screening. Other tests that should be done on William include diabetes screening, osteoporosis screening, prostate cancer screening, physical exams tests and hearing and eye exam tests. Ageing leads to increased chest wall stiffness, reduced blood flow via lungs as well as reduction in the heartbeat’s strength. Secondly as one ages, the kidney and bladder changes consequently affecting their functions. Thus the kidney tissue reduces; there is also reduction in the number of nephrons (filtering units) and hardening of the blood vessels supplying the blood to the kidneys making the kidneys to filter blood very slowly. On the other hand, the wall of the bladder changes with the elastic tissue becoming tough and less stretchy. The muscles of the bladder also become weak. The respiratory system on the other hand changes with age. Thus, the lung muscles together with other tissues near someone’s airways lose their capability to maintain the airways entirely open causing them to close more easily (Farley & McLafferty, 2011). In addition, aging also results in alveoli losing their shape and becomes baggy. Such changes may lead to trapping of the air in the lungs and less oxygen enters the capillaries with very little carbon dioxide being removed, making breathing difficult. The aging process causes the bone density or bone mass in addition to calcium as well as other minerals. The vertebrae also lose its mineral content, making every bone to become thinner and the spinal column turns out to be compressed and curved. The bones of the legs and arms do not change in their length, nevertheless, they become brittle due to mineral loss, joints also become stiffer and less flexible and joint fluids reduction occurs. There is also depositing of minerals in and around joints a process known as calcification (Farley & McLafferty, 2011). The skeletal system on the other hand changes considerably and there is decrease in the bone density, as bones lose calcium together with other minerals. The person also develops a hunched back due to the thinning and compression of spinal vertebrae together with the discs because of mineral and moisture loss. Movement also becomes slow and unstable and there is an increased risk of injury because of a combination of brittle bones and instability. As one ages, the brain as well as the nervous system undergo natural changes. Thus the spinal cord and brain lose nerve cells together with weight (atrophy) and nerve cells start to relay messages more slowly compared to the past. As breakdown of nerve cells takes place, waste products may pile up in the brain tissue and this may result in abnormal changes in the brain such as formation of tangles and plagues. Nerve breakdown usually affects senses leading to problems with safety and movement (Farley & McLafferty, 2011). List of References Farley, A.,McLafferty,E. 2011 The Physiological Effects of Ageing. New York: John Wiley & sons,Inc. Mayo Clinic, 2014 Mayo Clinic Guide to a Healthy Pregnancy. New York: RosettaBooks. Newman, P. 2012 Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. New York: Cengage Brain. Seli, E. 2011 Infertility. New York: John Wiley & Sons,Inc. Read More