Breast Cancer Disease - Coursework Example

Breast Cancer Breast cancer is caused by several factors that are environmental, behavior, physical and genetic. BRCA1 is a genetic factor causing cancer. BReast Cancer one (BRCA1) is a gene of the human being producing tumor suppressor proteins. BReast CAncer (BRCA) genes are found in both men and women and their main function is to repair damaged DNA in our body cells and keep the breast cell to grow normally, and for this reason, they play a crucial role in ensuring cell genetic materials stability (YU & HUNG 2007). In case the BRCA1 genes are altered or mutated, making their protein products not to function correctly, the damages within the DNA may not be prepared as usual. It may prove to be so fatal to the person and makes them susceptible to cancer of the breast since the cells of the body may end up developing more alterations in the genes. One can inherit particular harmful BRCA1 from their either mothers or fathers. These inherited BRCA1 makes the women more susceptible to cancer of the breast (TAGHIAN, & HALYARD 2012). Angelina Jolie being one of the victims of BRCA1 disclosed when she underwent a double mastectomy after finding that she had BRCA1 gene mutation that increases the risks of breast cancer. She has a history of cancer in her family where her mother died of ovarian cancer and an aunt to cancer of the breast. For this reason, she urged other women to seek medical attention, mostly those with a history of cancer in the family (TAGHIAN, & HALYARD 2012). Following Jolie’s much publicized, most women are now seeking genetic counseling in the United States, Europe and the rest of the world. In BRCA testing, there are three possible results: positive, negative and ambiguous. Positive outcomes show that the person has inherited harmful BRCA1 and has greater chances of developing cancer. It is therefore not an automatic indication that the person will develop breast cancer and when. Positive results do not only have negative implication for an individual, but also have some positive consequence on the social and health for the family members and the generation of the future, what other common factors are associated with the pathogenesis of breast cancer (YU & HUNG 2007). Other common factors are associated with the pathogenesis of breast cancer Pregnancies and breastfeeding In women, pregnancies and breastfeeding impose a significant risk to women towards the cancer of the breast. Research shows that during and after pregnancies, women have greater chances of contracting cancer of the breast, but later in life, their chances of contracting the disease are lowered compared to women who have never had a child (TAGHIAN, & HALYARD 2012). At the same time, research also shows evidence that nulliparity and increasing age at first birth are associated with an increased risk of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer as well as progesterone receptor-positive breast cancer, but not for triple negative breast cancer. Estrogen exposure Estrogen exposure has various implications for breast cancer. Women who started having periods earlier or those who entered menopause later than usual are more vulnerable to breast cancer. It is because of longer expose to estrogen. This exposure starts at the beginning of periods and reduces gradually towards menopause (LERNER 2001). Estrogen also plays several roles in facilitating breast cancer which includes; stimulating breast cell division, its impact on other hormones that excite breast cell division, its role during breast development and growth and its role in the growth of estrogen-responsive tumor. Generally, women who have got maximum one-third estradiol levels had a 2.07-fold increased invasive cancer of the breast risk related to women with lower levels. Breast cancer risk is significantly reduced by raloxifene in both the high and low subgroups of estrogen for all risk factors examined. Women with breast cancer history and who have the highest BMD, as compared to those with very low BMD experiences greater therapy benefit with raloxifene, compared with the two-thirds of patients without a family history and lower BMD. The exposure of estrogen on women is affected by both lifestyle and environment (TAGHIAN, & HALYARD 2012). Obesity Overweight and postmenopausal obese women stand a greater risk of being attacked by breast cancer since they have greater production of estrogen in excess adipose tissue hence they stands higher risk. For this reason, estrogen-sensitive tissues are open to more estrogen stimulation in obese than in lean women, hence stimulating the progression and growth of cancer of the breast (SMITH 2006). Effects related to obesity on the level of insulin and the insulin-like growth factors of growth and alteration in the production of adipokines by adipocytes that may be an important contributor to breast cancer progression and development. Furthermore, obesity also results in the release of inflammatory mediator that facilitates growth of tumor. The question of current research that may ascertain joint biologic mechanisms that relates the obesity to cancer outcomes is this complex interaction of these variables associated with cancer (LERNER 2001). Age Older women have higher risks of contracting breast cancer since more than 80% of the female breast cancer occurs among women above 50 years who have passed menopause. Older people are less likely to receive therapy consistent with the consensus statement, and women above 70 years are less likely to receive axillary lymph node dissection as determined by logistic regression analysis (SMITH 2006). Cosmetic implants may undermine breast cancer survival The researchers from Canada reported in the BMJ (British Medical Journal) (May 2013 issue) that women with cosmetic breast implants and develop breast cancer have greater risk of dying prematurely from the disease as compared to other females. Experts had long wondered how cosmetic breast implants make it difficult to see malignancy at initial stages since they produce shadows on mammograms. Researchers also found that women with a cosmetic breast implant have a higher risk of about 25% of being diagnosed with breast cancer when the disease has already advanced, compared to those with no implants (SMITH 2006). In addition, it is evident that women with cosmetic breast implants and diagnosed with cancer of the breast have got greater risk of death of 38% of the disease as compared to other patients with no implants but diagnosed with the similar disease. Alcohol consumption A woman will have higher chances of contracting cancer with the regular time they take alcohol. Moreover, for this reason, The Mayo Clinic says that a woman should not exceed one alcoholic beverage per day if they have to drink. The main effect of alcohol is that it breaks down into substances called acetaldehyde, which can cause genetic mutations this, therefore, triggers a response from the body that can lead to the development of cancerous cells. Alcohol also increases the production of the female hormone estrogen in post-menopausal and pre-menopausal women (LERNER 2001). The high concentration of estrogen makes the cancer cells to multiply more rapidly. Alcohol also alters the immune system and contributes to nutritional deficiencies, including folic acid, vitamins A, B6, D and E and zinc, which all give the body hard time to fight cancerous cells. Radiation exposure Radiations from X-rays and CT scans may increase a womans risk of developing breast cancer considerably. Research has found that women treated with radiation to the chest for a childhood cancer are more susceptible to breast cancer. Mammographic density Mammographic density (MD) is another most fundamental risks for breast cancer. Women with MD have increase chances of contracting breast cancer. Several research and studies have shown that mammographic density is a stronger risk factor for cancer with a higher grading and estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer. In addition, mammographic density could definitely intensify breast cancer risk through the progesterone receptor pathway (LERNER 2001). Reference TABÁR, L., TOT, T., & DEAN, P. B. (2005). Breast cancer the art and science of early detection with mammography : perception, interpretation, histopathologic correlation. Stuttgart, Thieme. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/56840699.html PEACOCK, J. (2001). Breast cancer. Mankato, Minn, LifeMatters. TAGHIAN, A. G., & HALYARD, M. Y. (2012). Breast cancer. New York, Demos Medical Pub EISENSTEIN, Z. R. (2001). Manmade breast cancers. Ithaca, Cornell University Press. SILVA, O. E., & ZURRIDA, S. (2005). Breast cancer: a practical guide. Edinburgh, Elsevier Saunders. LERNER, B. H. (2001). The Breast Cancer Wars Hope, Fear, and the Pursuit of a Cure in Twentieth-Century America. Oxford, Oxford University Press, USA. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=431044. SMITH, T. L. (2006). Breast cancer: current and emerging trends in detection and treatment. New York, Rosen Pub. Group. MORROW, M., & JORDAN, V. C. (2003). Managing breast cancer risk. Hamilton, BC Decker Inc. WEN, J. (2008). Decreased BRCA1 levels confer Tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer cells. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Virginia, 2008. http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3322509. WINTER, S. L. (2006). Genetic and functional characterization of the interaction of BRCA1 with the serine/threonine phosphatase, PP1, and the circadian clock proteins, Per1 and Per2. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Toronto, 2006. CASTILLA, L. H. (1995). Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer and the BRCA1 gene. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Michigan YU, D., & HUNG, M.-C. (2007). Breast cancer chemosensitivity. New York, N.Y., Springer Science+Business Media. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=511488 LEONARD, D. G. B. (2007). Molecular pathology in clinical practice. New York, Springer. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=372326. WINCHESTER, D. J. (2006). Breast cancer. Hamilton, Decker. Read More