Organ Trafficking - Literature review Example

Organ Trafficking Introduction Organ trafficking occurs in three categories. First, it may occur when a trafficker deceives or forces a victim to give them their organ. It may also occur when a victim informally or formally consents to selling off their organ, and end up deceived because of either paid less amount or not paid at all. Third situation may occur when vulnerable individuals receiving treatments ailments get their organ removed without their knowledge. The most vulnerable people to this menace embrace uninformed, migrants and more so immigrant staffs and homeless besides others (Lopp, 2013). A victim of organ trafficking can be of any age group (Lopp, 2013). Most commonly trafficked organs include the liver and the kidney. Organ trafficking mainly encompasses a host of criminals starting with recruiter who aids in the identification of the vulnerable individuals including medical facility, medical practitioners, transporter, buyers, and the banks where the trafficked organs end up preserved (Schicktanz & Ḥefah, 2010). Organ trafficking has resulted from organs’ scarceness for transplant universally. The shortage of organ supply in most states has increased the instances of international organ trafficking besides potential recipients traveling all over globally just to acquire the organs via commercial means (Palmer, 2014). Generally, international organ trafficking is now considered to be one of the critical health policy issues that the international community is fighting to eradicate (Manzano, et al, 2014) (Palmer, 2014). This is evident in Lopp’s (2013) study asserting international community has formulated and implemented standards meant to curb this crime. These embrace The UN Protocol that focuses on prevention, suppression and punishment of human traffickers in Article 3 of the protocol comprises organ removal. The UNC on Children’s Rights, which has a protocol declaring sale of children with aim of selling their organs a criminal offence. The WHO guidelines on organ transplantation that refer to the sale of organs as defiance of human rights as well as dignity This paper tries to bring into the limelight available information concerning international organ trafficking, particularly organ trafficking in India. The paper through providing a literature review about organ transplant and trade, and some challenges and analysis concerning the topic brings about a clear picture of the situation and organ trade forms. Literature Review Yosuke Shimazono (2007) provides some information about organ trafficking and organ transplant in his research work. Generally, Shimazono (2007) defines organ transplantation as an effective end-stage therapy done to an individual when their organ has failed, and he asserts that it is a practice commonly done worldwide. Shimazono (2007) backs up his assertions by providing WHO statistics on organ transplants. These statistics exhibit 91 states harbor operations of kidney transplants. Besides, in 2005 approximately 21 000 liver, 66 000 kidney as well as 6000 heart transplants were worldwide undertaken (Shimazono, 2007). Shimazono (2007), however, brings about a real aspect that patients’ access to organ transplantation varies depending on their national situations. The further proves this via stating that ascertaining this fact is partial by health care costs, organs’ accessibility as well as level of technical ability (Shimazono, 2007). Further, Shimazono (2007) depicts the causes of the issue by commenting that in some nations the advance of deceased organ donation has been hindered socio-cultural and legal factors. He further asserts even developed states cannot meet the ever augmenting demand for organs with the deceased organ donation program despite the rates being greater than in other states. In addition, live donations for transplantation of liver and kidney are performed, however transactions in such transplant organs is illegal in many nations. Moreover, Shimazono (2007) proves the fact that the world is fighting to eradicate the organ trafficking problem by bringing out the fact that countries must take measures to ensure they provide protection to vulnerable groups from organ trafficking. However, he comments that the issue of organ transplantation and trafficking is still perfectly unfathomed despite many being aware of the issue’s existence. Shimazono (2007) blames this on inadequate effort put on integration of available information and scarcity of data. Generally, from the research, Shimazono (2007) has majorly used a literature review that was commissioned by WHO’s Department of Essential Health Technologies. The commissioning was by this department’s Clinical Procedure Unit. The literature review aimed at gathering information concerning international organ transplant and trafficking. It also aimed at synthesizing this information into a tentative worldwide picture through use of multiple research strategies. In addition, Shimazono (2007) used medical articles about the results commercially planned overseas transplants. From the research, Shimazono (2007) has managed to collected results that have ample information. For instance, this study reveals some forms of global organ trafficking, exporting as well as importing regions besides results and consequences of this crime (Shimazono, 2007). This is via transacting with any potential recipients who have traveled overseas to receive for transplantation, hence referring as “transplant tourism” (Botterill, Pennings & Mainil, 2013). Based on Shimazono’s (2007) findings indicate this form includes factors linked to organ transplantation commercialization. The trafficking process is arranged by potential recipients or may be facilitated by health-care providers and intermediaries who ensure adequate plans to travel and recruit vulnerable donors. Shimazono’s (2007) findings also indicate India as one of the main organ-exporting nations. Indian has from the past been a place where organs provided by local donors were often transplanted to foreigners after a transaction (Shimazono, 2007). Despite the number of such foreigners having decreased in the past years because of a ban by the law, the activity is secretly undertaken. Moreover, Shimazono implies that illegal trade of organs in India partly results from the absurd imbalance amid demand and supply for legal organs. In 1994, for instance, Indian regime banned kidney sales for purposes of commercial gain; culprits could receive a jail term of five years. Despite this, legal donations of organ in Indian remain rare. Other states also known to be notorious organ-exporters include the Philippines, Pakistan, Egypt, and China. Some minor organ-exporters embrace Moldova, Brazil, Turkey, Bolivia, Peru, Iraq as well as Israel (Shimazono, 2007). Shimazono (2007) further provides an appropriate definition for organ-importing states. He asserts that organ-importing nations are the nations of origin of the recipients who go abroad to buy organs for transplantation, for illustration one of the organ-importing state is USA (Shimazono, 2007). Challenges and Analysis Generally some of the possible consequences and effects or rather challenges of organ trafficking for individuals include regrets, discrimination, and mostly depression (Manzano, et al, 2014). This is true since most of the paid organ donors never receive follow-up care majorly because of financial problems. In India, for instance, research shows that the habit of organ donation affects the social-economic status of donators probably due to factors like limited employability and health deterioration (Aronowitz, 2009). As an analysis, organ trafficking in India may not be considered a representation of sporadic cases in transplant medicine in the country. Generally, undergoing transplantation via the organ trade, of late, has become the most widespread way through which one can undergo organ transplantation in India. The trade links the incapability of Indian health-care systems to ensure the ailing needs with no proper regulatory frameworks (Cullen-DuPont, 2009). It simply exploits such inconsistencies and is based on inequities (Cullen-DuPont, 2009). Therefore, the regularization and consistent growth of the organ trade must be considered a public health issue by the Indian government. In addition, Aronowitz (2009) asserts that an Indian non-governmental group, Multi Organ Harvesting Aid Network (MOHAN) encourages legal donation of organs. This group confirms that in India the rates of donation are less than 1 individual per million people, compared to donation rates of over 20 individuals per million people in nations like France, the U.S. and Spain. Further, the group affirms that Indian religion or culture is not behind the decreased rates of legal donations. MOHAN further depicts that those unprincipled doctors who do the illegal transplants majorly exploit key factors in the Indian society. Such factors include poverty and illiteracy; they use the factors to purchase organs in the ‘black markets.’ Further, according to Cullen-DuPont (2009), India has several young men desperate for jobs. These men can easily travel to the Indian cities to receive money without caring the means through the receive it. Moreover, they still are potential victims despite them not willing to donate. Actually, in certain situations, what happens is that while others willingly donate organs, others are forced to undergo the transplants. India’s population is not such literate, to mean, a greater part of the population can be taken advantage of easily. Territo & Kirkham (2010) insist that there exists urgency in the need for more social scientific and medical research. The scarcity of previous attempts to monitor the organ trade, particularly in India, perhaps depicts an inadequacy in the current mechanism to effectively deal with this concern. The development of a platform where professional societies, Indian government, researchers, and Indian policy-makers cooperate in collecting and sharing information can be regarded a significant step towards a more extensive health policy in India. In conclusion, the black market has come up in most of the developing states, particularly India. This has allowed and enabled the wealthy individuals to purchase organs thereby exploiting the individuals desperate enough to trade their organs. Moreover, several situations have also arisen whereby people travel from various nations to India just to purchase organs that they cannot find in their home country. Globalization merged with economics of demand and supply implies that wealthy nations, which demand for more organs than is locally supplied, look for donors in poorer countries such as India to give organs and satisfy their demands (Manzano, et al, 2014), which is often illegal. References Aronowitz, A. A. (2009). Human trafficking, human misery: The global trade in human beings. Westport, Conn: Praeger. Botterill, D., Pennings, G., & Mainil, T. (2013). Medical tourism and transnational health care. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Cullen-DuPont, K. (2009). Human trafficking. New York, NY : Facts On File. Print. Lopp, L. (2013). Regulations regarding living organ donation in Europe: Possibilities of harmonization. Berlin: Springer. Manzano, A., Monaghan, M., Potrata, B., & Clayton, M. (2014). The Invisible Issue of Organ Laundering. The Transplant Journal, Vol 98:6. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Palmer, L. J. (2014). Organ transplants from executed prisoners: An argument for death sentence organ removal statutes. Berlin: Springer Schicktanz, S., & Chair in Bioethics (Ḥefah). (2010). Teaching ethics in organ transplantation and tissue donation: Cases and movies. Göttingen: Univ.-Verl. Göttingen. Shimazono, Y. (2007). The State of International Organ Trade: A Provisional Picture Based on Integration of Available Information. Public health reviews. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/85/12/06-039370.pdf Territo, L., & Kirkham, G. (2010). International sex trafficking of women & children: Understanding the global epidemic. Flushing, NY: Looseleaf Law Publications. Read More