Effects of Dietary Calcium on Body Composition and Body Mass - Literature review Example

LITERATURE REVIEW Effects of Dietary Calcium on Body Composition and Body Mass Calcium can be described as one of the most important minerals to the human body because of the significant role it plays (NIH 2013). Calcium is an essential mineral in the human body as it enhances a lot of cell physiological functions. Many cellular processes within the human body are dependent on the movement of calcium ions (Ca2+) in and out of the cytoplasm of the human cells. This makes the physiological functions of the body to become adversely affected by the lack or presence of calcium on the human body. The mineral remains the most abundant metal in all living organisms in terms of mass, since it is the major component used in the mineralisation of teeth, bones and shells of living animals. The NIH factsheet identified calcium as an essential mineral which plays a significant role in building of the bones and teeth which are strong and dense, while maintaining the fitness of these bones. Much calcium is found in the bones and also the teeth (99%), with a small fraction being found in other parts of the body like muscles and bloods (NIH 2013). The mineral has various uses within the human body and these make it to become increasing important in the daily diets for many people. Weak bones are normally associated with the deficiency of calcium among humans and this condition could be treated through sufficient supply of calcium to the affected individuals. Greer & Krebs 2006, discuss the effects of poor dietary calcium intake among children. Calcium deficiency has been closely associated with occurrence of rickets. There is a close linkage between rickets and vitamin D, and this vitamin has been identified as essential in aiding the body uptake of calcium (Greer & Krebs 2006). As an essential building block for bones, calcium deficiency results in a conditions known as osteoporosis. According to Rosen & Klibanski 2009, osteoporosis is characterised by weak bones which make the person to become highly susceptible to fractures and slow healing. Life-long deficiency of the mineral results in negative effects on bone and teeth formation. The natural bone loss which occurs in humans past the age of 40 becomes accelerated when individuals are exposed to diets of low calcium, which results in deficiency (Rosen & Klibanski 2009). Within the human blood calcium also performs a significant role in aiding blood clotting process. Low levels of calcium in the body could therefore prevent adverse health effects upon the affected individuals. While there is an increasing significance of calcium in the human body, the uptake of the mineral could be through diet or directly. According to Straub 2007, direct intake of calcium is commonly utilised for medical purposes but becomes complicated by the difficulties which the human bodies experience in absorbing calcium into the body system. The absorption process of the mineral requires other nutrients which might also be lacking for a health condition to develop (Rosenblum et al. 2012). Dietary uptake of calcium plays both preventive and curative roles to the various medical conditions emanating from calcium deficiency. In the case of Premenstrual syndrome, which is commonly linked with calcium deficiency, oral administration of calcium prevents the symptoms from occurring (Ghanbari et al. 2009). However proper consumption of dietary calcium prevents occurrence of PMS among women. On the other hand, calcium supplements have no effect in preventing this condition. The body composition could be adversely affected by the levels of calcium which a person consumes in their diet. Obesity has been a prevalent health conditions which has been increasingly associated with poor body composition caused by weight gain (Reid et al. 2010). Various approaches have been considered in seeking to develop a solution for curbing the growing problem of obesity around the world. Calcium intake has been one of the approaches which could be utilised in the management of body weight, consequently improving body composition. The existing correlation between calcium intake and body compositions has been a subject of many studies. A negative correlation between calcium intake and body weight was first reported in 1984 using cross-sectional information from a survey conducted by the National Health and Nutrition Examination (McCarron 1984). Further studies which have been conducted in relation to these initial findings have produced contradictory findings. The reasons for thee diversified findings still remain unclear, however, calcium remains one of the most significant and most abundant mineral in human bodies. The regulation of absorption of the mineral remains an element which the body must be able to uptake in order to ensure there is a constant level of calcium maintained within the body (Chen et al. 2012). While consumption of calcium might be increased and be sufficient, the uptake could be poor since it is affected by the presence or lack of other minerals. According to Barr 2003, the role of calcium in maintaining body weights remains contradictory since, increased consumptions reduces the uptake rate of the mineral within the human body. While there are different sources of calcium in the body, dietary calcium remains the most common and easiest way if getting calcium into one’s body (Reid et al. 2010). Nutritional health requires calcium to be consumed at certain levels in order to maintain a healthy body. The use of supplements and oral consumptions is normally discouraged since it could easily result in an overdose of the mineral. Despite the many benefits which calcium has, over consumption could have detrimental health side effects to the affected person (Gerstener 2005). This is mainly because the efficacy of absorption of calcium reduces with increased consumption of the mineral by people. Inadequacy of calcium in the body does not have any direct symptoms which could be utilised in identifying the presence of the problem (Ross et al. 2011). Many of the symptoms, however, occur following a prolonged period of calcium deficiency in the human body. While it is commonly associated with health conditions which are not life threatening, the long-term effects could be life threatening and can even lead to death of the affected persons. There are various health issues which are related to the deficiency of calcium among humans. These health problems commonly have an effect of the entire body because of the complex process through which the minerals are absorbed. The lack of calcium also results in shortage of other essential minerals in the body as well. The process of absorption of calcium significantly influences other body functions which affect the body mass and composition as well. According to Dubnov-Raz & Berry 2008, increased dietary intake of calcium directly results in increased concentration of the mineral in the human intestines, and this high concentration of calcium within the intestines causes the formation of insoluble fats, which are then excreted by the body through the excretion system. This causes a reduction in the dietary fats available for storage in the body. Increasing dietary calcium therefore has a direct effect on the reduction of body fats. This could be an effective approach which could employed to enhance the well-being of obese individuals within the society. The fat mass within the human bodies becomes reduced significantly when there is an effective consumption of dietary calcium among people. Barr 2003 says that there is an underlying problem which affects the efficacy of this approach in the management of body composition and body mass. While calcium produces such positive effects in reduction of body fats, the increased consumption of the mineral has a negative effect in reduction of the efficiency with which calcium of absorbed (Chen et al. 2012). For the mineral to be effective in the elimination and support of excretion process of fats, desirable amounts of the mineral must be absorbed. Calcium however, has been identified as self-inhibiting where high intake inhibits the absorption process. According to Barr 2003, there are various factors which affect the composition of the body in relation to calcium intake among individuals. This is mainly because the absorption occurs different among people based on their physiological aspects as well as the types of food which they consume. The rate of uptake of calcium is also determined by these factors and it becomes difficult to assess the effect of these factors in body compositions and mass (Soares et al. 2012). This is mainly because the absorption of calcium occurs differently among different people and this affects the effect which calcium has on the same group of people. Children for example, could suffer from rickets and poor bone development when they lack calcium in their diets. Adults on the other hand, could have adverse effects in the deterioration of bone strength when they suffer from calcium deficiency (Barr 2003). Low levels of gastric acid in the human body result in low levels of absorption of calcium. This means that the uptake of food could be directly linked with the presence of food in the human body (Peacock 2010). This mostly presents negative effects on the poor absorption of calcium into the body. When the calcium is consumed with food, however, the absorption levels do not show negative effects (Gerstener 2005). Other factors which could also affect the uptake and absorption of calcium include smoking which adversely reduces the absorption rate of calcium. In seeking to enhance calcium absorptions people are advised to refrain from such behaviours in order to increase calcium absorption efficiency in the body. The sources of dietary calcium are many and diverse based on the nutritional background of people. While calcium deficiencies have been associated with various health related issues, people are advised to consume the required levels as high concentrations of calcium also have side effects (NIH 2013). High levels of calcium in the blood result to a condition called hypocalcaemia. This condition causes the efficiency of renal functions to become reduced significantly. The condition has been linked with a myriad of problems including, renal insufficiency, kidney stones, hypercalciuria and soft tissue calcification (Ross et al. 2011). High calcium intake also causes different problems to the general population like constipation, which is common among different people. Chen et al 2012, says that high levels of calcium interfere with the uptake of other minerals becoming inhibitors and resulting in malnutrition among different individuals. While many of the problems related to kidney stones, are associated to increased risk of kidney stones, dietary sources of calcium do not have such effects on the individuals. Pregnant and lactating mothers require relatively high amounts of calcium; hence they can consume calcium directly rather than dietary calcium (Ghanbari et al. 2009). This category of people can safely use supplements despite the various dangers associated within the supplementary sources of calcium. Among men, high levels of calcium have been linked with the increased risk of prostate cancer and cardiovascular diseases. It is increasingly difficult to separate the effects of dairy foods from those of calcium, since most calcium comes from dairy products (Straub 2007). These problems which face men, are also highly associated with the supplementary sources of calcium. Due to the variations in calcium requirements for different individuals, the tolerable Upper Intake limits (TUI) levels have been identified and developed in order to control the intake and ensure the effects of high levels of calcium are eliminated. The levels which are presented in table 1 have indicated different demographics of people according to their physical requirements. These limits should not be surpassed as this would result in the side effects which have been discussed including potential causes of other medical condition. These elements are given in milligrams which should be consumed per day. Table 1Tolerable upper intake levels of calcium (Straub 2007) Age Male Female Pregnant Lactating 0–6 months 1,000 mg 1,000 mg     7–12 months 1,500 mg 1,500 mg     1–8 years 2,500 mg 2,500 mg     9–18 years 3,000 mg 3,000 mg 3,000 mg 3,000 mg 19–50 years 2,500 mg 2,500 mg 2,500 mg 2,500 mg 51+ years 2,000 mg 2,000 mg   Calcium is normally used in the body for different purposes including prevention of various medical conditions like renal failures, which are associated with the deficiency of calcium (Peacock 2010). Dietary intake of calcium is normally determined by the activities which people undertake and the physical requirements of their bodies. Dietary intake of calcium depends on the various physiological factors which affect the individuals. Calcium has been identified as having a significant effect in the reduction of occurrence of cardiovascular diseases. According to Rosenblum et al 2012, this occurs because the presence of calcium reduces the absorption of fats in the intestines. The reduction of absorption of fats becomes essential in reducing cholesterol levels in the bloods and this is critical in prevention of cardiovascular diseases. This effect is commonly achieved through the utilisation of calcium supplements although the effects of dietary calcium to the same effect remain unknown (NIH 2013). The effects of dietary intake of calcium is commonly increased because there is increased efficiency in the uptake of calcium. Increased intake of calcium among the individuals susceptible to these conditions becomes critical in reducing the imminent risk of contacting the disease. The occurrence of hypocalcaemia increases the blood coagulation and this is essential in reduction of stroke and other medical conditions which occur as a result of blood coagulation (Peacock 2010). The uptake of calcium in the body therefore becomes critical in ensuring proper blood circulation because of the reduction of blood related problems. This ensures that there is an increased efficiency in the process of uptake of other essential nutrients in the body. Proper uptake of other minerals ensures that the body remains healthy and this is critical in maintaining good body compositions and body mass. Sufficient uptake of calcium without exceeding the estimated tolerable upper intake limits are critical to the healthy living of people. Despite there being inconsistency in the relationship existing between calcium uptake and reduction of blood pressure and hypertension, there is relative indication of uptake of calcium affecting the low blood pressure and hypertension (Barr 2003). The supplements of calcium are commonly utilised in the reduction of blood pressure although the effects of dietary calcium are not clearly understood in relation to the reduction of hypertension and blood pressure. The supplements are commonly utilised in the treatment of hypertension. Proper uptake of dietary calcium could be a preventive measure for minimising the risk associated to the occurrence of hypertension. According to Chen et al 2012, dietary calcium results in reduction of the concentration of the mineral in the fat cells of human beings. This occurs through reduction of the production of parathyroid hormone which is the active form of vitamin C. the decreased intracellular concentrations of the hormone increases the breakdown of body fats and contributes to the weight loss among people. This difference in concentration discourages the concentration of fats around the body cells. The breakdown of fats contributes significantly to the reduction in body mass index (Dubnov-Raz & Berry 2008). This is one of the reasons why calcium has been proposed as absolution in curbing the prevalent problem of obesity among various individuals. This is commonly maintained through dietary calcium since supplements and other sources of calcium are associated with the high level of calcium in the body. Calcium from food is commonly bound in small amounts of dietary fats within the digestive tract. These fats commonly prevent the absorption of fats within the digestive tracts, especially within the intestine (Chen et al. 2012). This reduction in absorption becomes critical in reducing weight through reduced absorption of mineral and nutrients. Since the nutrients are critical in the process of management of body weight (Soares et al. 2012). The calcium supplements which contain much calcium have increased effects in in the reduction of absorption of the body fats. This becomes critical in ensuring that the fat does not accumulate in the body cells. Recommended dietary intakes of calcium have been established to ensure that the levels of calcium are maintained in the body. The recommendations are based on the physiological situations of the individuals based on their daily requirements. The table below presents the recommended dietary intakes of calcium for different people based on their age groups. Table 2 recommended dietary intake for calcium (Ross et al. 2011) Age Male Female Pregnant Lactating 0–6 months* 200 mg 200 mg     7–12 months* 260 mg 260 mg     1–3 years 700 mg 700 mg     4–8 years 1,000 mg 1,000 mg     9–13 years 1,300 mg 1,300 mg     14–18 years 1,300 mg 1,300 mg 1,300 mg 1,300 mg 19–50 years 1,000 mg 1,000 mg 1,000 mg 1,000 mg 51–70 years 1,000 mg 1,200 mg     71+ years 1,200 mg 1,200 mg     While supplementary intakes of calcium have the advantage of presenting increased intake of specific minerals and other nutrients, dietary calcium remains the preferred source of calcium in the body (Ross et al. 2011). This is mainly because the supplements, despite having higher levels of concentrations, they present the risk of having high concentrations of calcium in the body (Rosenblum et al. 2012). High calcium levels have adverse side effects and avoiding these sources of calcium becomes essential in mitigating the possible side effects of high calcium levels. Dietary intake of calcium remains the best source because of the other effects which results from different elements which are involved in the absorption of calcium. The utilisation of dietary sources of calcium ensures that only the intact forms of the calcium are absorbed in the body (Ross et al. 2011). Chen et al 2012 says that many of the notable side effects of calcium result from excessive consumption of the mineral. The dietary sources commonly have low levels of concentration, which are sufficient to the body and cannot be able to present the negative effects. The process of absorbing calcium in the body requires the presence of other minerals and nutrients like vitamins within the body. These nutrients become essential in ensuring the body composition and body mass are maintained (Dubnov-Raz & Berry 2008). In most cases when people have calcium deficiency, there is always other deficiencies which are present within the body. Naturally occurring substances which contain calcium also have other essential elements which are required by the body (Peacock 2010). The supplementary nutrients enhance the process of absorption of the minerals. This ensures the body compositions remains balanced in order to ensure the people are healthy and live lifestyles which are free of health complications. This ensures the body remains within the required daily calorie intake required by the body. References Barr, S.I., 2003. Increased dairy product or calcium intake: is body weight or composition affected in humans? The Journal of nutrition, 133(1), p.245S–248S. Chen, M., Pan, A., Malik, V. S., & Hu, F. B., 2012. Effects of dairy intake on body weight and fat: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 96(4), pp.735–747. Dubnov-Raz, G. & Berry, E.M., 2008. The dietary treatment of obesity. Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America, 37(4), pp.873–886. Gerstener, G., 2005. New Power of Calcium. European Journal of Nutraceutical & Functional Foods, 16, pp.1–7. Ghanbari, Z., Haghollahi, F., Shariat, M., Foroshani, A. R., & Ashrafi, M., 2009. Effects of calcium supplement therapy in women with premenstrual syndrome. Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 48(2), pp.124–129. Greer, F.R. & Krebs, N.F., 2006. Optimizing bone health and calcium intakes of infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics, 117(2), pp.578–585. McCarron, D.A., 1984. Dietary calcium as an antihypertensive agent. Nutrition reviews, 42(6), pp.223–225. NIH, 2013. Calcium Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet, Available at: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/. Peacock, M., 2010. Calcium metabolism in health and disease. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 5(1), pp.23–30. Reid, I. R., Ames, R., Mason, B., Bolland, M. J., Bacon, C. J., et al., 2010. Effects of calcium supplementation on lipids, blood pressure, and body composition in healthy older men: a randomized controlled trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 91(1), pp.131–139. Rosen, C.J. & Klibanski, A., 2009. Bone, fat, and body composition: evolving concepts in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. The American journal of medicine, 122(5), pp.409–414. Rosenblum, J. L., Castro, V. M., Moore, C. E., & Kaplan, L. M, 2012. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation is associated with decreased abdominal visceral adipose tissue in overweight and obese adults. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 95(1), pp.101–108. Ross, A. C., Taylor, C. L., Yaktine, A. L., & Valle, H. B. Del, 2011. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D, Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56070/. Soares, M. J., Murhadi, L. L., Kurpad, A. V., Chan, W. L., Ping-Delfos, S., & Piers, L. S, 2012. Mechanistic roles for calcium and vitamin D in the regulation of body weight. Obesity reviews, 13(7), pp.592–605. Straub, D.A., 2007. Calcium supplementation in clinical practice: a review of forms, doses, and indications. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 22(3), pp.286–296. Read More