The Relationship Between the Willingness of the Donor, Ethical and Emotional Affiliations - Research Paper Example

due: Section/# Between Ethics and Emotions in Organ Donation Organ donation is a concept that has numerous programs initiated following a scarcity in the donated organs for transplant. In this evaluation, the relationship between the willingness of the donor, ethical and emotional affiliations is investigated. The choice of donating organs follows two stages, alive and posthumous. The social and psychological status of the potential donor and family are the basis of the willingness in organ donation. The objective of the paper considers the purpose of the practice, as well as the audience as the donors, have different reactions to both aspects. The approach towards organ donation for the cadavers is similar for the organ donor card applicants, while potential donors, not in the program have the family to debate the viability of such an option. In such a scenario, the aspect of willingness is evaluated. The decision on organ donation follows what factors drive the donor towards the act, as well as the recipient involved. The terms of organ donation depend upon the parties involved in the practice. Interaction between the donor and recipient is part of the donation process, since prior knowledge of the recipient may influence the donor’s choice. Where organs are harvested after death, the recipient and the donor may not have heard the chance meet, and the motive behind the donation is mainly ethical. Suggestions of biased donations founded on emotion can only be argued from the context of an existing relationship between the donor and recipient, but where no relationship exists, the donor is compelled by a feeling of obligation to the society and fellow humankind, in the race for survival. The research shows that the unpopularity of organ donation is founded in fears of the unknown and misconceptions of changes that cannot be undone. The potential donors have reservations in donating organs since there is a view that the change that is irreversible as well as permanent has an effect on the appearance of the donor. Introduction Organ donation is a practice popularized with developments in the medical field. The general objective is making the most of organs, depending on their use and host towards the elongation of life. Donations are made with the host alive as well as after death, provided the organs be harvested in a safe and approved manner. The market for organs is lucrative such that the black market has evolved, where individuals in need of organs use their financial advantage to circumnavigate the organ recipient protocols. In most cases, donated organs are disbursed per the list of compatible patients, source of the organ, the extremity of the causal condition and availability. Family members have donated organs such as kidneys to their kin, since the degree of compatibility is higher, while attempting to elongate the health of the patient, but not all cases are successful (Gardiner 301). Organ donors, while alive, place their health at risk by donating organs since the procedures are intrusive (Smith, Sandi, Kopfman, Lindsey, Yoo and Morrison 333). Organs from the deceased persons are harvested closest possible to the time of death, and consent has to be given by the host or registered next of kin, relative, or spouse. In case of absent compatible patients, the organs harvested are preserved until the medical elite have approved a candidate. The process of organ donation intrinsic and engages several aspects of society such as culture, beliefs, and traditions (Merchant, Yoshida, Lee, Richardson, Karlsbjerg, and Cheung 342). In the western cultures, organ donation is more prevalent to the African culture, just as some religions hardly support the practice. From the constructs of society, individual beliefs come into play when considering organ donation. In the case of a live donor, a risk to their health is the most yearning factor. The risk is taken depending on the ethical and emotional status of the host. With family and friends, the emotional aspect contributes to the action taken by the donor. Where a family member or friend’s life is threatened, and the need for donated organs arises, an individual may be pushed towards donating an organ from love, the emotional aspect takes precedence in such a situation. In most cases of registered donors, where organs are harvested after death, it is a case of ethics. Decisions of organ donation after death stem from the principle that the organs are not useful to an individual after death, but can help elongate the life of a patient. One may feel obligated to society and enters into an agreement with the healthcare givers that healthy organs be harvested in the time of demise. Problem Statement Organ donations are usually done voluntarily. The degree of volunteerism is influenced by several factors, which are constructs of society. The society inculcates a culture by which norms and values are set, such that an individual’s adherence to the social principles determines whether one is a role model in the society. The general view on donations, especially when the donor is alive, is a selfless act. The fact that an individual places one’s life at risk is considered by society as a risk that most people would not take without astute compelling factors. On death, donations are considered a gift to the individuals left behind (Sastre, de Sousa, Bodi, Sorum, and Mullet 323). The willingness of organ donation follows an individual’s beliefs, values, norms, experiences and relations. An individual who may have benefitted from an organ donation may be likely to be a donor as well since the patient has benefited from the actions of the donor. This may occur under multiplier effect with family and friends of the donor or recipient also following the trend; however, this is not a definite possibility, since the choice is based on the mental, psychological, and social experiences of the candidates (Farsides 515). The objective of this study is to evaluate the willingness of donors visa via the emotional and/or ethical grounds under which the organ harvesting is carried out. The behavior of organ donors is paramount in establishing the factors influencing the donation choice. The mental and social health of the donors define the setting in which the organ donation choice is made, considering the environment, society, trend and risk involved (Sque, Payne and Clark 120). Where organ donors are alive, the choice may be a collection of circumstances that place the donor at a disadvantage, socially or otherwise, or an emotional bondage that defies the norms of society. The implantation of organs in hospitals follow protocol, where protocol dictates a search for a compatible organ harvested prior to the demand for the organ, before engaging in a suitable candidate search to extract an organ from a living being. Organs that are donated follow the nature and functionality of the specimen. The case of kidneys is an example where a donor does not have to have passed on, but when it comes to organs such as the heart, the donor must be dead, as one only has a single heart. The human anatomy also influences the tendency of organ donation, such that if the donation is to leave the donor’s health jeopardized then the harvesting is not conducted. Law limits the willingness of the donor since there are extents to which the donors cannot facilitate the process. Under no circumstances can a donor opt for suicide to save another human’s life, since most societies and laws condemn the act of suicide. Donations, by both live and dead participants, undergo a thorough check to establish the donor’s state of mind in making the choice of donating organs (Guedj, Sastre, and Mullet 422). Aspects of coercion, drug intoxication, and bribes are considered unethical, when it comes to gaining access to organs. The willingness of the donors is a measure that must encompass factors such as the mental health of the candidate, existence of any form of coercion or agitation, as well as contracts and agreements that indicate benefits from an economic perspective. Family and friends may donate their organs amid themselves from an emotional tie to a patient, and the willingness is mainly fuelled by fear of loss (Yousefi, Roshani, and Nazari, 323). Willingness of making donations for this study is best-addressed by considering the number of people who have committed to a contract on being donors, while not having been subjected to any pressure that might have persuaded the candidates to make such choice. Literature Review There is a high demand for organs, as explained by Sastre et al. (2012) in the context of cadaveric organs available to the public for transplant programs (323). Sque et al., (2006) support this fact by stating that the United Kingdom’s waiting list for organ transplant is about eight thousand (117). Sastre et al., (2012) further references the drives for organ donations by living donors (323). This aspect expounds on the degree of willingness associated with organ donation. The donations from cadavers and living beings attract differences in the willingness and trends of organ donation. The living has to make the choice personally to partake in organ donation prior to their demise, but cadavers have the families to make a choice on whether to allow the cadaveric organ harvesting to continue. The willingness for both types of candidates indicates individual and cultural variations in relating the physical, psychological, and spiritual realms. The donations are highly affiliated to loaded emotions, following the fact that a piece of the body is being extracted, more so for the cadavers that cannot communicate. Smith et al., (2004) states that encouraging family discussions are a means towards reducing the demand for the organs, as with the discussions, the rate of organ donation approval increases (333). The discussions with family are important towards meeting the demand for organs since, as surveyed by Skowronski (1997) personal beliefs and attitudes determine the willingness of the participants towards organ donation (427). The factors that influence the willingness follows three major circumstances, which include the exact organ, relation between a recipient and donor and the donors condition (alive or dead) (Skowronski 427). Organ donation willingness surveys and studies concentrate mainly on the live donors, who may have engaged in signing up for an organ donor card. The behavior of organ donation is assessed following individual feelings and commitment towards the process. Believes such as organ donation leaving the body mutilated and disfigured deter some candidates from participating in organ donation (Skowronski 428). Skowronski (1997) reports on a previous study conducted by Parisi and Katz that established that positive attitude towards organ donation was not sufficient for candidates to commit, but a combination of strong positive attitudes and lack of strong negative attitudes resulted in more donations (428). Following this argument, the willingness of signing an organ donor card follows the psychological state of individuals towards organ donation. Emotions may compel an individual towards sympathetic behavior, but the metal status and conceptions about the process determine the bias towards organ donation. Willingness in organ donation follows various prohibitory factors regarding the relations between the donor and family such as shock, consent of the dead, hope for recovery in ill donors and recipients, conflicting options, process unfamiliarity, and a case of wrongful association (Yousefi et al. 323). Where donors suffer chronic illnesses, from where there is little medical hope, emotions and ethical affiliations may either prohibit or facilitate organ transplants. This decision is tough on family members, especially whether a candidate had not committed to the organ donor card, and conflicts often arise. Knowing when it is most suitable to donate an organ is the task of the medical practitioners, but the readiness of a donor or family is based on culture, religion, individual attitudes, and familiarity in the process. The events resulting to the demise of a potential donor also contribute to the success of organ harvesting, since traumatic experiences have indicated a less likely condition for organ donation (Yousefi et al. 328). Knowing that one is an organ donation cardholder reduces the burden imposed on the family, especially in the grieving state. The cadaveric organ donations increase with discussions with the families, as stated above, but the definition of death becomes a challenge to the process. In most cases of death, the bereaved have a hard time letting go and will go to extremities to ensure the survival of a family member. The concept of brain death draws a lot of controversies, since it is a state where the bereaved may feel, the patient can recover, while others may feel that their loved has passed away. In such a situation, a divide across a family may limit the possibility of organ transplant. Organ transplantation has a close link to brain death and the members involved in the practice may hinder or facilitate organ harvesting (Yousefi et al. 323). Methods Conducting research on the issue of organ donation willingness is approached using a questionnaire. The participants of the research are required to make a choice via answering questions that have been drafted for such a purpose. The assessment of the participants focus on establishing the factors that lead to the decisions made when organ donation is involved. The participants are to provide answers to questions relating to organ donation, in the capacity of a single individual, party within a family while the donor is the participant, alive and clinically dead. The participants in the study would be comprised of randomly chosen students. The age of the participants is a constraint in the study, since the chosen participants must be of the legal limit as lesser than that there is a requirement for a guardian. The participants are to be grouped into three categories; willing, unwilling, and undecided. The evaluation would follow up a presentation documenting the risks as well as the benefits linked with organ donation, and a simple survey on which groups the participants feel attached to undertaken. The change following the question would be further analyzed by having the participants suggest their reasons and appeal behind their stand with a particular group. Conclusion The survey results of the study must consider two main approaches to organ donation; cadaveric and live donor. The case of a live donor is simplistic in that the participants are asked on their choices in organ donation via applying for an organ donation card. A self-assessment on why one would be a donor reveals that both emotional connections to family members and a feeling of obligation towards society contribute to the choice of donating one’s organ. The question of preference reveals that the emotional factor, following an emotional bond (relatives) has more appeal for the donors. The participants would opt for a family member as opposed to a stranger in donating their organs. The circumstances that are behind the organ donation however influence the willingness of the donor (Merchant et al. 345). If the risk in organ donation is acceptable, then the participants would prefer the emotionally connected character to a stranger. Ethical attestations in organ donation come after emotional allegiance to friends and family, but only after the risk have been assessed. The live donor considers the risks involved prior to making a decision on organ donation, even when a family member is involved. The case of the cadaveric organ donations is different, mainly since the risk of death has been overcome. This only happens where the family has accepted the death of the potential donor. One dead, the potential donor’s concerns are raised by elements of culture, beliefs, religion, and society in general (Rodrigue, Hanto & Curry 1709). The chance of saving another individual appeals to the family, under the context of ethical obligations to society. This scenario, which acts out as a ‘gift of life’ is considered a merciful, honorable and selfless act by the family, especially where the wishes of the deceased are unknown. The challenge is further eliminated if the departed had already enrolled in the organ donation program. The decision to be an organ card holder follows a sense of responsibility to society since there is hardly any connection or beyond between the deceased and recipient. Works cited Farsides, Tom. Perceived Responsibility to Act: An Investigation with Respect to Registering Willingness to Become a Posthumous Organ Donor. British journal of psychology, 101(Pt 3), (2010):503 - 517. Gardiner, P. A Virtue Ethics Approach to Moral Dilemmas in Medicine. Journal of Medical Ethics. 29.5, (2003): 297 - 302. Guedj, Myriam, Maria T.M. Sastre et al., and Etienne Mullet. Donating Organs: A Theory-Driven Inventory of Motives. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 16.4, (2011): 418 – 429. Merchant, J. Shaila, Eric M. Yoshida, Tim K. Lee, Penny Richardson, Karl M. Karlsbjerg, and Elsie Cheung. Exploring the Psychological Effects of Deceased Organ Donation on the Families of the Organ Donors. Clinical Transplantation, 22, (2008): 341–347. Rodrigue, R. James, D. W. Hanto and M. P. Curry. Patients’ Willingness to Accept Expanded Criteria Donor Liver Transplantation. American Journal of Transplantation, 11, (2011): 1705–1711. Sastre, M. T. Munoz, Sophie de Sousa, Erika Bodi, Paul Clay Sorum, and Etienne Mullet. Under what conditions would people be willing to make a living organ donation? Psychology, Health & Medicine, 17.3, (2012): 323–334. Skowronski , J. John. On the Psychology of Organ Donation: Attitudinal and Situational Factors Related to the Willingness to Be an Organ Donor. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 79.4, (1997): 427 – 456. Sque, Magi, Sheila Payne, and Jill Macleod Clark. Gift of Life or Sacrifice? : Key Discourses for Understanding of Organ Donors’ Decision-Making by Families. Mortality, 11. 2, (2006): 117 – 132. Smith, W. Sandi, Jenifer E. Kopfman, Lisa L. Massi Lindsey, Jina Yoo and Kelly Morrison. Encouraging Family Discussion on the Decision to Donate Organs: The Role of the Willingness to Communicate Scale. Health Communications, 16.3, (2004): 333 - 346. Yousefi et al. , Hojatollah, Asieh Roshani, and Fatemeh Nazari. Experiences of the Families Concerning Organ Donation of a Family Member with Brain Death. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 19.3, (2014): 323 – 330. Read More