Effect of Aggrandizing Working of the CVS - Case Study Example

PHYSIOLOGY s TASK The human body is made of different systems which co-ordinate among themselves for proper functioning of the body as a whole. Nervous System: The nervous system has 4 main parts-the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The CNS consists of two parts: the brain enclosed in the cranium and the spinal cord which is located within the vertebral canal. Nerves present in the body act as sensory inlets which carry the stimulus to the brain. The brain processes the stimuli and sends out a signal in form of motor action. The spinal cord also performs sensory, motor and reflex functions. PNS includes cranial and spinal nerves that connect the CNS with the receptors and effectors of the body. In mammals 12 pairs of cranial nerves are present which are designated by serial numbers I- XII and have a special name for example olfactory nerves sense olfactory sensations. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. According to the region of their attachment they are known as – cervical (8), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5) and coccygeal (1). Cardiovascular system (cvs) The CVS consists of the heart, arteries, veins and the capillary system. The human heart is located between the two lungs and behind the sternum in the thorax. The function of the heart is to pump blood throughout the body. The heart wall is made up of 3 layers: Pericardium- Most external composed of mesothelium and connective tissue. Myocardium- middle layers’ composed of cardiac tissues. Endocardium- It is the innermost layer. It provides smooth lining for the inside of the heart and covers the valves. It consists of 4 chambers partitioned by septum. Atria- The two upper chambers of the heart are partitioned by inter-auricular septum. The right atrium receives the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava. It receives deoxygenated blood from the body. The pulmonary veins open in the left atrium. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood. Ventricles- These are the lower two chambers and are separated by the inter-ventricular septum Respiratory System The respiratory helps our body to take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide. The respiratory system may be divided into two: Upper Respiratory system: This part consists of the nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx and trachea. This part is responsible for taking in air, filtering, sterilizing and moistening it before it passes through the trachea into the lungs. Lower Respiratory system: This consists of the bronchial tract and the lungs. Alveoli and bronchioles make up the lungs. The gaseous exchange takes place here with the help of alveoli. Alveoli take in carbon dioxide from the capillaries and oxygenate the blood which is then transferred to the heart for circulation. Breathing Breathing is the act of taking in oxygen and elimination of carbon-dioxide. The intercostals muscles and the diaphragm play important role in this. It consists of two phases-Inspiration and expiration. During inspiration the chest cavity expands forcing air through the nostrils while during expiration the intercostals muscles relax and diaphragm returns to its normal position and air is expelled out. Digestive System This system enables us to take in food and absorb it to extract and utilize the energy for existence. Digestion occurs in 2 phases-physical breaking (food is broken down to create bolus) and chemical action on food (enzymatic actions helps in chemical conversion of food components for better absorption). Digestion takes place as follows: Teeth help to break down food into smaller pieces while saliva mixes with it and amylase starts chemical degradation. Peristaltic movement helps food bolus pass down the esophagus into the stomach. Food is stored in stomach for 1-5 hours where it is mixed with gastric juices. Stomach undergoes churning movements while gastric pepsin softens the food. This food is now called chyme and enters the intestines. In the duodenum food is mixed with bile and pancreatic juices. Absorption of food takes place while undigested food is defecated. Several glands such as pancreas, gall bladder and the liver are important for digestion. Pancreas produces enzymes. Liver produces bile for lipid absorption while the gall bladder stores the bile (Mackenna & Callander, 1997, p92). Musculo-Skeletal System The musculosketal system is made up of the muscular system and the skeletal system. Muscular System- There are about 650 muscle fibers in the body which may be categorized as follows: 1. Striated- They are cylindrical and unbranched. They are attached to the skeleton and are voluntary in nature. 2. non-striated- They are spindle-shaped and unbranched. They are involuntary. 3. Cardiac- This makes up the heart muscles. Skeletal System The skeleton system includes all the 206 bones of the body. It can be categorized as: 1. Axial: Made up of 80 bones and occurs in the mid-axial part. It consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum. 2. Appendicular: This lies laterally and is attached to the axial skeleton. It has 126 bones in 4 complexes-pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, arm and leg bones. The main function of this system is to protect the body and provide a solid framework. They also help in hematopoiesis and stores essential substances such as calcium and iron. Integumentary System This system consists of the skin, subcutaneous tissues and glands. The skin lends protection to the body and is composed of two parts-epidermis and dermis. The main function of the skin includes protection, thermoregulation, sensation and excretion. Keratinized structures such as nails are seen on top of digits. The four main glands found are: sweat glands (secretes sweat), sebaceous glands (secrete oil for hair and skin lubrication), ceruminous glands and mammary glands. Immune System The immune system helps the body to protect itself from foreign bodies. It consists of 3 lines of defense. The first line of defense consists of the skin and mucous membranes and other chemical barriers. The second line is activated when the first line of defense fails. This leads to phagocytic activity (phagocytes and mast cells) and inflammation. The third line of the defense comprises of antibodies. The B-cells produce the antigen-specific antibody while T-cells produce chemicals to kill antigen. Endocrine System This is the signaling system of the body. The endocrine glands are ductless and depend on hormones. The main hormone-secreting glands include: 1. Pituitary: The master gland controls growth. a. Anterior pituitary-secrets Somatotrophic hormone (growth regulator), follicle stimulating hormone, prolactin (milk secretion). b. Posterior pituitary- secretes vasopressin (helps in homeostasis) and oxytocin (milk ejection). 2. Thyroid secretes thyroxin and triiodothyronine increases metabolism rate and regulates growth. 3. Parathyroid secreted parathyroid hormone the regulated calcium content in plasma. 4. Adrenal glands secrete: a. Minerralocorticoids: regulate sodium and potassium. b. Glucocorticoids: control blood sugar level. c. Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine- effects metabolisms and homeostasis. 5. Pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon and decreases and increases blood glucose level respectively. Urinary system The urinary system consists of a number of componenents which filter excretory products from the blood and make urine which is then passed out of the body. Kidneys are the primary excretory products in man. They are a pair of bean-shaped structures about 11.25 cm long, 5-7.5 cm broad and 2.5 cm thick. Kidneys are composed of 1.25 million renal units called nephrons which are the structural and functional unit of kidneys. From each kidney a thin, long muscular tube known as ureters arises which carries the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder is a sac-like structure which stores the urine till it is transported out. The urethra is a membranous tube which opens to the outside. In male it is 20 cm long and divided into three parts (prostatic, membranous, penile) while in female is only 2.5-4.5 cm long. Reproductive system Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce ne individuals similar to themselves. Man engages in sexual reproduction where the female and male gametes produced in the respective bodies The male reproductive organ consists of scrotum, a pair of testes, auxiliary glans and penis. The scrotum is a pouch-like pigmented structure present between the legs and divided internally by septum scroti into right and left scrotal sacs. These sacs hold the testes and acts as a thermoregulator maintaining the testes temperature 2 degree below body temperature. A pair of testes is present in the male and is concerned with production of sperm cells. Penis is the copulatory organ lying in front of scrotum which helps to transfer sperms to the female reproductive tract. Accessory glands help in lubrication during sexual excitement and include seminal vesicles, prostate glands and Cowper’s glands. The female reproductive system consists of two ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina and accessory genital glands. Each ovary is almond shaped and concerned with production of egg cells. A fallopian tube arises from each ovary and is the site off fertilization. Uterus is a muscular sac and is highly vascular. The uterus opens into an elastic muscular tube called vagina through the cervix. The vagina is the copulation chamber and receives the erect penis. The Bartholin’s glands are two bean-shaped glands which secrete lubricating fluid into the vestibule during sexual excitement. (1.2) a) Homeostasis is maintenance of a constant, favorable internal environment despite fluctuations in water or solute content and formation of toxic metabolites. A negative feedback is a response that leads to decreased function. Blood pressure is regulated in this way. When pressure rises, the heart rate slows down induced by brain signaling leading to pressure control. Positive feedback enhances the original response. For example, during parturition oxytocin is released which is primarily responsible for milk ejection. However, it also leads to contractions thereby enhancing the labor process. b) Cellular metabolism refers to metabolism of macromolecules for energy. The digestive system helps to make these macromolecules such as glucose, amino acids etc available to the cell for various functions such as glycogenesis etc. The respiratory system helps to bring in oxygen required for metabolism and also carries away the carbon dioxide that is eliminated from the cells c) Growth hormone helps to regulate growth and development. Hypersecretion leads to acromegaly while hyposecretion casus cretinism or dwarfism. Task 2 2.1 The 25 years individual is young and healthy and since he is involved in a non-sedentary lifestyle, it may well be expected that is body would be able to cope up with his preparation for the marathon organized by the charity foundation. The musculo-skeletal system is the most important contributor towards the training since different kinds of body muscles are recruited for the training purpose. The physical activity would increase the need for oxygen in the muscle tissues. The cardiovascular system is another major component that would help him train. The most important function of the cardiovascular system is to pump blood efficiently to the working muscles to maintain proper oxygen flow to the muscles. During exercise the heart pumps more blood to the body. The increased working of the CVS also induces rapid breathing. However, the physical activities that he has engaged in at this young age would help him deter cardiovascular problem in the future. Scientific studies have established that regular engagement in even mild forms of physical exercises can help in reducing risks of both coronary and cardiovascular mortality rates (Wannamethee & Shaper, 2001, p101) . 2.2. The ways in which the young man’s body responds can be understood at the cellular and tissue level. To help him train his muscles required more oxygen. Research has shown the compression in the muscle tissues during exercise led to change in tissue blood flow because the metabolism of each muscle cell also increases (Coza et al, 2012, p1631). The increased need for the oxygen is also what makes the heart beat faster in order to maintain blood flow to the working muscles. Since the cardiac muscles work rapidly they need rapid oxygenation which makes the respiratory system work faster hence inducing rapid breathing. 2.3. Exercising does induce response from different body system however some internal activities such as thermoregulation and homeostasis helps the body to adapt to these changes. Exercising increases body temperature which needs to be regulated to enable optimum functioning and this is achieved by vasodilatation, increased heart efficiency and sodium ion conservation. TASK 3 3.1. Routine measures help to understand if a person is in ill health or not. Several routine measures such as height-weight, heartbeat-pulse oximetry, blood pressure, blood sugar level, temperature. Different devices are used for measurement of these measures. Weight scales is used to measure weight, thermometer for temperatures, sphygmometer for blood pressure, stethoscope for heartbeat and a pulse oximeter to determine pulse oximetry. These routine tests are very vital and convey important messages. For example a gain or loss in weight indicates metabolism changes, a rise in blood pressure indicates hypertension while a simple body temperature indicates if the body is under thermal stress or not since drastic changes in temperature often affects proper organ functioning (Bene, 1990, p990).Since the man is obese and suffers from flu like symptoms I would recommend having his temperature, B.P, oximetry and pulse checked. Since fever like symptoms are there this indicates entry of a foreign body therefore I would also ask him about his immediate intake since this can be a case of food poisoning since food poisoning also gives off flu-fever like symptoms (ADAM Medical dictionary, 2014). However I would also keep the other possibilities open as well. 3.2. These routine measures actually tell a lot about the person. Each of the measurement taken indicates whether or not the person is functioning normally. Rise and fall in body temperature indicates if a person is suffering from hyperpyrexia or hypothermia (Bene, 1990, p990).Sudden weight changes also tell a lot about ones condition. Weight gain could emerge from metabolism problems, depression, wrong medication, eating disorders while sudden loss in weight may indicate problems with dietary intake. Rise in blood pressure also indicates hypertension which could lead to serious consequences if not taken care of. 3.3 The routine checks are a mere indication of the health and well being of a person. Slight deviance from a healthy body calls for proper care and management. Therefore routine checks are the first steps towards planning for care and management strategies. The rise in temperature is a good indication that the immunity of the person is working however the temperature needs to be monitored. Since the case seems like that of an infection it is recommended that the person looks into his daily dietary intake. Task 4 4.1. The woman is 85 years old and suffers from age –related health ailments. With age, the functioning of the body and its systems starts to deteriorate and affects the overall health of a person. Effect on respiratory system Aging has profound effect on the respiratory system of the body. Structural changes within the respiratory system consist of deformity in the chest walls and thoracic spine which leads to more effort in breathing. The lung functioning also declines and alveolar dead space increases which affects the arterial oxygen (Sharma & Goodwin, 2006, p253). Effect on nervous system The nervous system also affected by the process of aging. Several studies show decrease in the weight of the brain and in the number of cortical neurons. Ganglial degeneration leading to clumping of Nissl granules and destruction of neurofibrillary reticulum is seen. All this leads to impaired nerve functioning. The CNS is affected by age-related vascular alterations, demyelination and gliosis leading to problems with response to stimuli, thoughts, memory and cognition (Wilcox, 1956, p1179). Therefore diseases such as Dementia and Alzheimer’s are prevalent among older individuals. Effect on Integumentary system Aging causes loss of cell functioning hence skin cells are replaced at a much lower rate thereby causing thinning and translucency of the epidermal layer. This also leads to slower skin repair or healing. One of the most common problems is that of collagen atrophy (Calleja-Aquis et al, 2007, p60). The skin loses elasticity and wrinkles easily. Sebaceous glands also decrease leading to loss of moisture thereby making the skin itchy and flaky. Melanocytes decrease thereby exposing the skin to harmful UV rays and subsequent problems such as skin cancer. 4.2 The woman suffers from diabetes II, hypertension and arthritis and each of these have impacts on the body which debilitates her ability to function normally. Diabetes II means having higher glucose concentration in the blood. The woman may suffer from frequent hunger and thirst pangs, frequent urination and skin problems that heal slowly. This is perhaps the reason her wound is not healing at a good rate. Hypertension is the state of increased blood pressure. In fact, hypertension is a major risk factor for diabetes I. Since the woman suffers from both there is high chances that at a later stage she might also suffer from renal problems or cardiovascular diseases (Mengesha, 2007, p244). The woman also suffers from either osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis in the knees. However given the fact that she is elderly and a menopausal woman there is increased chances that she is suffering from osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis patients suffer immense pain owing to degeneration of the cartilage cushion between bones. This problem has an impact on the normal movement of the woman and she tends to have problem with walking, sitting down, standing up and moving. 4.3. Routine care is a must for the old women since most of her problems are chronic in nature. Her conditions call for proper attention. Food and lifestyle needs to be kept under check. Proper medication including ones to protect against wound infections needs to be taken. The woman also needs rest and should avoid frequent and unnecessary movement. Routine checks need to be done such as weight check and blood sugar level test. REFERENCES A.D.A.M. encyclopedia, “Food poisioning”,PubMed health, available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002618/ (last access July 2, 2014). Bene,V.(1990),” Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations”,Butterworths, Boston.Print. Calleja-Aquis et al.(2007),”skin ageing”. Menopause International,vol.13, no.2, pp.60-64. Coza,A. et al,(2012),” Effects of compression on muscle tissue oxygenation at the onset of exercise”,Journal of Strenght and conditioning research,vol.26,no.6,pp1631-637. Mackenna,B.R. & Cllander,R.(1997),”Illustrated Physiology”, Churchill Livingstone, NewYork.Print. Mengesha,A.Y. (2007),” Hypertension and related risk factors in type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) patients in Gaborone City Council (GCC) clinics, Gaborone, Botswana”,African Health Sciences,vol.7,no.4,p.244-245. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3074377/ (last accessed June 23,2014). Sharma,G & Goodwin,J.(2006),” Effect of aging on respiratory system physiology and immunology.”Clinical interventions in Aging, vol.1,no.3,pp.253-260. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695176/ (last accessed June 23,2014). Wannamethee S.G. & Shaper,A.G.(2001),” Physical activity in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: an epidemiological perspective”,Sports Medicine,vol 31, no.2,pp.101-114. Wilcox,H,(1956),”Changes in Nervous system with age”,Public Health Reports, vol.71,no.12,pp 1179-1184.Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2031151/pdf/pubhealthreporig00156-0025.pdf (last accessed June 22,2014). Read More