Health Promotion from the Figurational Sociological Perspective - Dissertation Example

 Health Promotion from the Figurational Sociological Perspective Sociological theories play a significant role in informing or explaining some things or situations. For example, the Marxism theory focuses more on economical issues, and the existence of classes. The theory also explains sports as a manipulative thing, which only belongs to certain people of a certain class. In fact, it explains that by participating in sporting or athletics events, one is only enriching the owners of such events. Another sociological theory is feminism, which mainly discusses issues of gender relations and subjugation. According to this theory, gender is a factor in sports and hence health. Other theories that discuss health issues include functional theory, conflict theory, critical theory and interactionist theory and figurational theory (Elias, 1978, pp. 3-7). This paper analyses health and health promotion through the figurational sociological perspective. Figurational sociology dwells on figurations, interdependence, power balances in flux, and intended and unintended consequences. This theory also discusses issues of health, the media, and the lengthening interdependency chains in the process of globalization. Indeed, figurational sociological perspective is efficient in analyzing health and health promotion issues (Morrow, 2009, pp. 215-219). According to WHO, health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1946, p. 1). Very many theorists have explained the issues of health and healthism using figurational theory. This neologism is paramount in explaining issues of health and medicine, and the medicalization of life. In the 21st century, healthism has become am empowering phenomenon where people use physical activities, diets, drugs and yoga in keeping their health conditions at check. According to the figurational theory, healthism originates from government inner circles, and it is none other than propaganda meant to compel people to adopt a health lifestyle. In fact, the theory states that depending on its measure, every activity is healthy or unhealthy, accountable or negligent, and permitted or non-permitted. The theory also likens healthism with lifestylism, and blames unhealthy habits as the main cause of various diseases affecting people. Some theorists also believe that what we have on earth are an unhealthy people who compose the sick population. However, this is fatalistic if one considers the fact that life has many lifestyle doctrines, and that each person has different views on standard and suitable health lifestyles. The theory also explains the issue of selling sicknesses in the sense that healthism causes totalitarianism. The figurational theory believes that healthism leads to some social vices such as eugenic control (from the government), segregation and racism. In other words, healthy conditions imply purity, patriotism and morality, while unhealthy conditions imply unfamiliar, tainted, and adulterated (Hargreaves, 1987, pp. 6-17)). Using the figurational sociological perspective, moral panic is a condition where bogus and embroidered information about a certain community or group of people spreads across the society leaving people troubles, with a lot of fear, or even shocked. The theory associated poor health lifestyles with moral panic. In fact, many people have lost their lives due shock brought by moral panic. According to the figurational sociological perspective, the origin of moral panic is the media. In fact, the melodramatic discriminatory reporting of the media is the root cause of moral panic. Exaggerated accounts especially from politicians, local leaders, human rights activist and influential persons in the society, if blown out of proportion can cause panic and lead to catastrophic phenomena. Although there are incidents of moral panic that have nothing to do with the media, majority of panics come because of showing social issues on the media (Ben-Yehuda & Goode, 1994, pp. 57-60). The figurational theory also links healthy lifestyles to moral panic through issues of morality that not only express indignation, but also unadulterated fright. According to this theory, moral panics gyrate around issues of sex and exhibit some characteristics such as stereotypical and caricatured information (“folk devil”). Such messages are likely to cause anxiety within the society. The worst thing about moral panics is that they can lead to mob violence, rebellion, opposition, and destruction of properties (Cohen, 1973, pp. 6-10). As seen above, moral panic is a heuristic device that that forms the foundation of unnecessary tension among people. Different social theories have tried to explain the issue of moral panic in relation to health. The figurational theory best explains the relationship between moral panic and health. To begin with, the theory addresses the biological, physical, and psychological wellbeing of human beings. At one point, the figurational theory introduces social class and tries to explain how civilization and the history of human beings came into existence. Even though the world has experienced some form of civilization, the refinement of manners is still beyond reach. That is the reason why people can fight because of football or discrimination against race. This therefore means that if people are not in a position to monitor their behaviors and restrain from making aggressive statements, moral panic can result. According to the figurational theory, moral panic is not good to the health of human beings. It caused psychological and social harm, which means that those affected are not healthy. In the modern society where technology is a talk of the day, the spread of information is easy. Socially constructed messages that cause moral panic, always lead to catastrophic episodes that leave many people injured or dead (Critcher, 2006, p. 9). The figurational theory further asserts that even in the most civilized societies, randomized phenomena occurs because of moral panic. Moral panic is responsible for many of psychological torture cases. Anyone who is psychologically affected is no healthy. We all live in a society characterized by inequalities and dissimilarities among the human population. There are those who feel superior to others due to various reasons. Such disparities are the reason behind moral panic. Take for example a game of football. In most cases, the players are rich people living in decent suburbs. On the other hand, the fans are poor chaps living in shanty areas. However, it is not common to find bitter rivalry pitting fans of various teams up to a point of participating in hooliganism. Instead of these people looking for ways of protecting their health conditions, they endanger themselves in the streets fighting for nothing (Bloyce, 2004, pp. 144-166). The figurational theory blames unhealthy lifestyles as the cause of various illnesses and diseases. For instance, just like HIV/Aids and cancer, obesity has become one of the worst nightmares facing many people today. There is no doubt that obesity has become a global health problem that needs quick attention. Although obesity is not an illness so to speak, it is a condition of being overweight until one’s health becomes into question. Many of the obesity related cases occur because of over-eating of certain foods, especially those that are rich in calories and fats. Obesity can also occur when people do not exercise regularly. In a highly globalizing world where everything including food is also undergoing revolution, obesity stands tall. Very many people are buying cheap food from stores without taking into consideration the composition of their calories. Some manufacturing companies are even processing food for people leading sedentary lifestyles. In urban areas, cases of obesity are common as many people living in cities like packed food (Haslam & James, 2005, pp. 1197-1209). Figurational theorists have not shied away from assigning medicalization of life as one of the causes of unhealthy conditions. It is imperative to note that the consumption of health depends on one’s economic status. It therefore means sick persons who not economically stable suffer the most. The figurational theory defines healthism as a doctrine that lectures people on the importance of adopting healthy lifestyles for the benefit of their bodies and well-being. Meaning, obese persons are people who have not yet mastered this doctrine. Certain lifestyles can also cause obesity if there is no “responsibilization” on the part of individual lives (Houlihan, 2008, pp.74-77). Figurational theory, just like in medicine, believes that obesity leads to other health complications. For instance, obesity also causes diabetes. Various researches show that there are great chances of overweight people developing Type 2 diabetes. The only way to minimize the chances of developing diabetes is to loose some weight. Medical experts have also associated obesity with some types of cancer. Some of these types of cancer are so common among women for example, breast and cervical cancer. However, obese men are also likely to develop cancer of the prostate and colon. Being overweight can also cause sleep apnoea. This is a condition where obese people find it difficult to breathe while they are asleep. Sometimes, such persons snore heavily whenever they fall asleep. Other health problems caused by obesity include osteoarthritis, gout, and gallbladder disease. Through regular exercising, eating the right amount of food, drinking a lot of water, and eating certain selected foods that are not rich in calories, cholesterol and fats, one can reduce the chances of developing health related problems mentioned above (Fumento, 1997, pp. 8-25). Sociologists have also tried to explain the issue of obesity using various. Figurational sociological perspective is one of such theories that experts use. However, it is imperative to not that the critiquing bellicose obesity has caused many rubbles within the academic sector. Figurational sociological perspective argues that it is the failure on the part of medics that we have people suffering from obesity. On the other hand, the theory categorically points fingers at the public for failing to take the necessary steps that inform good health conditions. Clearly, this delicate debate consumes a lot of time and effort. The politicization of the practices related to health and fatness have only served to extend the debate on this theory. The theory discusses overweight persons to exercise regularly and to use other paradigms like sports to cut their weight. According to this theory, clinical relevance is vital in ensuring people stay health and that they engage in daily activities (Biddle, 1992, pp. 98-110). Figurational sociological perspective highlights the origin of the species and takes the social constructionist theory to explain the concept of obesity as a whole. Rather than taking the views of ontology, the theory borrows from epistemology heavily. Thus, according to this theory, it is obvious that people are aware of obesity and that they know the causes of obesity. Through this analogy, it is clear that there are various modalities to deal with the issue of obesity. The theory, just like science, also highlights issues of over-eating, lack of regular exercising, and some foods as the main ingredients of obesity. It is imperative to note that this theory simplifies the stratified reality about the disease into a more coherent and contingent knowledge. Nonetheless, largely, the theory discusses obesity issues through the dominant sociological beliefs and dogmas. In science, these beliefs are not only ill informed, but have nothing to offer in the practical world. However, figurational sociological perspective, masquerades as the solution to obesity by suggesting that overweight people should natural interventions rather than complex attempts in order to lead healthy lives. It also suggests that in an age of mass deception and uncontrolled omnipresent structural aggression, people should take a shrink concern on issues related to their health in order to remain healthy (Dunning, 2002, pp. 211-230). The figurational sociology theory has proved to be one of the efficient theories that provide the basis of solving sociological issues. Through a number of systematic efforts both from within and without the social psychology arena, people have now become increasingly aware about some issues affecting the society. Sociologists have also used the figurational theory to explain physical inactivity. According to them, physical activities promote health and fitness. They believe that physical activities bring people together for the common good of socializing. The theory states that thorough physical activities, those participating are able to understand each other and therefore lead good mental lives. Additionally, the theory believes that through physical activities, the perceptions, feelings, and ideas of people are likely to change and therefore they will remain healthy. Lack of physical activities or physical inactivity is dangerous to the health of human beings. In other words, physical activities are instrumental in maintaining health and that they are the expressive of hidden internal events (Elias, 1978, pp.73-76). Through the figurational theory, one is able to identify someone who is in physical inactivity. The theory alludes that those who are physically inactive are not always happy, and they sometimes show elements of sorrow and anger. This means that physical inactivity is detrimental to the health of human beings. Physical activities form the basis of social interactions, which are paramount to the health of human beings. Physical activities also create harmonious association that develops the mental abilities of human beings. Notably, this theory infers some useful analogies on the importance of physical activities, and it castigates physical inactivity as the chief reason why many people fail to meet the required standards of health (Coakley, 1981, pp. 44-56). Physical inactivity can also lead to some health predicaments and conditions such as obesity, which we discussed earlier. It is also important to note that physical inactivity leads to certain unwarranted behaviorist accounts, which ignores the principles of health. In that case, human beings find themselves to blame whenever illness and other health problems arise. This theory also notes that physical inactivity alienates people both socially and psychologically. Physically inactive persons possess some dynamic traits such as dithering, apprehension, mental retardation, and anger—just to mention a few. In most cases, these traits inform people on the characteristic, physiognomic, and animated behaviors of a particular person. Thus, according to the figurational theory, physical inactivity is a disaster to human health (Cashmore, 2000, pp. 71-86). Many people do not understand the different between sports and physical activities. The figurational theory largely discusses the issue of sports and physical activity. With the heightened attention on the issues obesity and other health complications, many people are now turning to regular exercises in order to keep fit. In schools, teachers always emphasize on sporting activities so that children grow physically. Although the two almost mean the same thing, there is a slight difference between sports and physical activities. To begin with, sport is a word generally used to refer to physical dexterity, competition and elevated principles of performance—sportsmanship. It therefore encompasses many notions talent included. It is paramount to note that not all human beings can participate in sports. On the other hand, physical activities are exercise people do in order to keep their bodies fit. Clearly, people do not need to arrange for sports in order to exercise. Rather, they can exercise anywhere and anytime they feel so. On the contrary, sporting activities such as croquet, football, tennis, and all other Olympic Games requires regular exercising (Fish & Magee, 2003, pp. 165-168). In fact, according to figurational theory, a physical activity is a general word used to refer to both exercise and sport. People can exercise as individuals or as a group, but can use time or distance as an acme of their personal competition. However, in sports, it is a competition of groups or persons. Both exercise and sport are paramount in keeping someone healthy. For instance, overweight persons who exercise regularly can improve their cardiovascular fitness and prevent high blood pressure or difficulties in breathing while they are asleep. Additionally, regular exercising is a prerequisite of heightening body strength. When it comes to sports, participants receive rewards. In fact, currently, sport is one of the best paying careers. Nevertheless, both exercise and sport are fundamental to human health (Coakley & Pike, 2009, pp. 74). Figurational theory also advocates for physical healthy promotion as a doctrine of healthism. Throughout the world, various catalysts have been busy urging various communities to engage in sporting and exercising events. Different governments through the Ministry of Sports are also busy promoting physical activities through sports and exercising. In fact, there are physical activity promotion centers around the world whose main aim is to promote physical activities for the benefit of fellow human beings (Williams, 2009, pp. 106-108). For example, in one community, business corporations or agencies can organize events such as hop on the bikes and marathon in order to promote a certain activity. This means that the participants will get an opportunity to exercise their bodies and stay fit. The goodness with such events is that they do not need professional experience or talent, bur rather participation (King et al., 2002, pp. 15-25). Throughout the world, there is an increasing desirability to engage masses in promoting physical activities for human development. Various studies on physical activity base the assumptions on sociological theories thus, bringing psychological perspectives of physical activities into limelight. Many figurational theorists believe that these perspectives are responsible for shaping motivational interventions and an environment of physical activity and health promotion. Additionally, many figurational theorists believe that the various types of activity and health promotion programs are either attractive or unattractive depending on one’s perspective (Biddle, Fox & Boutcher, 2000, pp. 107-108). Some health promotion activities can either make people continue participating in those activities or make them discontinue. Figurational theorists are of the view only a conventional model of behavior change can only lead the program of activity and health promotion into victory. The use of motivational strategies is also paramount in making people understand the importance of physical activities and how they relate to health. Figurational theorists also believe that several types of activity and health promotion fail to consider individual motivations and other psychological variables, especially those of the elderly people (Hardman, & Stensel, 2009, pp. 68-71). Figurational theory also discusses “governmentality” or public policy as one doctrine of healthism. There is no doubt that sporting events have a great impact in the society. In order to realize the full potentials of sports, various governments have come up with policies to interface sports. Using the interdisciplinary perspective of many fields, there is indeed gripping connections between sports and public policy. Public policy is instrumental especially in managing professional sporting events for example, the English premier league, and the American sports leagues. Through public policy, the stakeholders can make decisions, solve conflicts, and end labor strikes threatening sports (Gillander & Hammerstrom, 2002, pp. 22-29). Additionally, by enacting public policies, many youth will benefit, as they will involve themselves in professional sporting events. Undoubtedly, public policy is the bridge that link sport and society, and eventually, there is fresh breath in public health as well. Moreover, public policy can address the dwindling levels of sports and provide stately management principles and values. Through sports, the world has become a global village benefiting many people not only economically, but also health wise. Consequently, policy decisions continue to influence consumer markets, learning and experience for the benefit of communities (Bloyce & Smith, 2010, p. 77). Figurational theory appreciates the role of public policy on individuals as it enables them to do what they want thus, staying healthy. The participation of people in physical activities and their involvement in enacting policies that favor their activities is a step in the right direction. Public policy can influence individual choices such as leisure patterns, physical exercising, participating in sporting events, type of food to eat, and many more. They also create an element of inclusion, create a network of relationships, which are paramount is solving health-related issues (Roberts, 1996, pp. 47-48). Although many experts use this perspective to explain, issues related to health and health promotion, there is no direct link between figurational theory, health and health promotion. This is simply because according to the theory, some health promotion activities can either make people continue participating in those activities or make them discontinue. Figurational theory explains things from the methodological point of view. It may not necessarily be efficient in explaining practical situations or states, but it is vital in highlighting processes and not promotions (Jarvie & Maguire, 1994, pp. 36-42). Many sociologists agree that the figurational theory is realistic at times. It is responsible for changing figurations and unravels some hidden things. The theory is adequate in highlighting the dichotomy or various problems and provides possible solutions. Secondly, this approach helps in destroying some sociological myths, thus clearing the way for structural transformations. Thirdly, since social life is a progression, human beings should embrace objectivity and reason in their lives. In conclusion, this approach promises to destroy myths, but it lacks unyielding extrapolative content (Rojek, 1986, pp. 584-596). References Ben-Yehuda, N., & Goode, E., 1994. Moral panics: the social construction of deviance. Oxford: Blackwell. Biddle, S., 1992. Sport and exercise motivation: a short review of antecedent factors and psychological outcomes of participation. Physical Education Review, 15, 98–110. Biddle, S., Fox, K., & Boutcher, S., 2000. Physical Activity and Mental Health: A National Consensus. London: Routledge. Bloyce, D., 2004. 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