Health Behaviour: How the Genetics of Gender and Ethnicity Impact on Health - Essay Example

Workbook Activity (Week 6) – Biological Influences on health and wellbeing APPROX 400 WORDS Answer Genetics exerts a profound impact on the health of individuals due to the fact that the phenotype is totally dependent upon the genotypic information contained in the genome. A number of genetic disorders that have their origins at the gene or chromosome level have been identified and the likelihood of a person getting such disorders is profoundly related to genetic susceptibility. Even the common encountered disorders have been attributed to genetic abnormalities; it is therefore very common to see the phenotypic manifestations of defective genetic information (Khoury, 2004). Ethnicity, to a large extent is related to the genetic makeup of individuals. Individuals having identical ethnic origins are likely to possess similar genetic codes and it is for this reason that the pattern of disease in an ethnically similar population is characteristic of that ethnicity. Genetic information to a large extent determines the susceptibility of an ethnic group to certain diseases. The underlying mechanism may relate to over or under-production of certain factors (e.g. proteins or antibodies), absence of formation of certain chemical mediators, defects in immunity resulting in heightened vulnerability to certain infectious agents or anatomical differences arising due to genetic differences. Age is perhaps one of the most well-known factors that influence an individual’s health. Newborns with a naïve immune system are more prone to infectious disease. As the age advances, the various systems of the body start to function in an improved manner due to continuous development and exposure to external environment. Individuals of young age are less prone to the development of disease; however this is not a rule and it is likely that individuals develop certain conditions which are characteristic of young age, e.g. Acne is more common in the young age than at the extremes of ages. In the terminal part of the age, the waning function of the various systems of the body, render the individuals more prone to the development of disease. Gender has profound impact on the development or aggravation of disease. This complex effect is compounded by genetic factors, ultimately resulting in development of disease due to a complex interplay of the various factors that may include hormonal factors, immune status, dietary factors, ethnicity and various others. Physiological differences are closely related to genetic differences; for this reason the range of diseases that occur due to physiological difference are often closely related to genetic abnormalities. Defects in enzymatic function, hormonal differences, and differences in the pattern of transport of various ion or electrolytes are a few examples that manifest as health problems. The environmental, social or psychological influences exert their effects in collaboration with the genetic, ethnic, gender and age. The ultimate outcome manifested in the form of ‘health-condition’ of an individual is the result of the complex interplay of various factors that are contributory towards health. E.g. an otherwise satisfactory health of an individual may be masked by unfavourable environmental or psychological factors for a period of time in life and manifest again later in life, when such factors are removed. 1. List two examples of how the genetics of gender (sex) and ethnicity impact on health (from your own knowledge or textbook reading). a) Gender i In case of Alzheimer’s disease, the presence of a single gene makes females prone to the development of disease, whereas in males this is not a possibility (Carlson et al, 2004) ii. Fragile X syndrome is a condition which renders male children develop manifestations of the disease, but females are comparatively protected (Hagerman & Hagerman, 2002). b) Ethnicity i. Various studies have pointed out that African-Americans score low in IQ tests as compared to their white counterparts; a manifestation of their mental capability based on their ethnic origin. ii. The presence of an allele Y1102 of the gene SCN5A, has been identified as a cause of arrhythmias in the black population including the Africans and Caribbeans; the gene is however non-existent in the Asians or White populations (Bulatao & Anderson, 2004) 2. Genetic testing as described in your textbook Reading 6 are controversial issues in health. From this week’s workshop and from your reading briefly describe possible ethical considerations around prenatal genetic testing and predictive genetic testing for individuals and the community. (Approx. 75- 100 words in each box) Individual Community Prenatal Testing The information derived from prenatal testing is often incomplete in the sense that it does not give conclusive evidence regarding the manifestation of a disease in any individual. In most cases, the information provided by prenatal testing only suspects the presence of a disease in an individual; leaving the difficult job of decision making regarding the fate of a pregnancy, on the shoulder of the parents who at that moment are often in a state of confusion. Certain conditions for which there is no cure available, the practice of prenatal testing is likely to result in social consequences in the form of discrimination, psychological trauma or stigmatization in the society. In such cases, it is often necessary to motivate the individuals prior to testing, in order to make is possible for them to accept the results whether positive or negative. In Huntington’s disease for example, stigmatization is very common since 100% per individuals who carry the mutation are likely to develop the disease sooner or later. Predictive Testing Predictive testing can pose a problem for the individual in a number of ways. There is concern that such predictive testing is likely to interfere with the lives of people in the form of discrimination by employers, social elements and insurance companies. The psychological distress associated with positive findings may ruin the lives of people who are screened positive for certain genetic diseases. This can have deleterious effects on relationships, work performance and health conditions. Testing of an individual can have far reaching consequences on the society. An individual when declared positive for a diseased trait can relay the information to his relatives who are also prone to the detected disease. The relay of this confidential information to institutions can have far reaching consequences in the form of job-losses, preference of a healthy individual over disease-affected individual etc. This can literally destroy the merit system of a society and cause undue oppression to the genetically vulnerable individuals. Workbook Activity (Week 9) – How we influence health behaviours APPROX 300 WORDS 2. Which risky health behaviour have you chosen? Unsafe Sex 3. Describe how this risky behaviour impacts on the health of individuals. (Approx. 300 words)Workbook Activity (Week 10) – How we influence the health behaviours of individuals and families APPROX 200 WORDS PLUS MODEL Weekly Learning Outcomes Applying behaviour change theories, discuss strategies to change the health behaviours of individuals and families. Question Instructions Select a behaviour change model: Theory of planned behaviour Theory of reasoned action Trans-theoretical stages of change model Apply the behaviour change model to your chosen health behaviour from the week 9 activity. You could either apply it as a risky health behaviour or as a risk reduction or health promotion health behaviour. Eg. You could look at the model behaviour which results in drinking during pregnancy or not drinking during pregnancy. You can apply the model as a drawing (figure) or in text. For question 3, briefly discuss how you have applied the model to your behaviour. Your discussion should reflect that you have understood both the model and the health behaviour. You will need to include 1 citation and reference in the discussion for the model of health behaviour (question 3). As the original references for these models are old or difficult to access you can use more recent research which has applied the model you have chosen. 1. Which behaviour change model have you chosen? I have chosen the theory of planned behaviour. 2. In the space below, apply this model of behaviour change to your chosen behaviour. You can represent this as a diagram or in sentence form. According to the theory of planned behavior, it is the intention of a person that determines whether a change in behavior can be expected or not (Fertman & Allensworth, 2010). This is in turn dependent upon the attitudes, other’s expectations from the individual under consideration and the perceived behavioral control of a person (Ajzen, 2007). In the case of unsafe sexual practices, the outcome of any activity that seeks to bring a change in the behavior of a person will depend upon the way in which a person intends to function. The attitude of a person regarding unsafe sexual practice is the first element in this regard. After this come the aspect of how a person perceives the expectations of others; if the person understands that people around him expect his to adopt a safe sexual lifestyle, there is increased likelihood of his adopting a safe sexual behavior. Lastly, the outcome depends upon how strong a self-control the person possesses regarding control of his unwanted behavior. 3. Briefly discuss how you have applied the health behaviour model to your health behaviour. You will need to cite the model of health behaviour (see above instructions for details). (Approx. 200 words) Workbook Activity (Week 11-12) – How we influence the health behaviours of communities and populations APPROX 600 WORDS Weekly Learning Outcomes Discuss models to influence health at the community level. Describe the social advocacy/consumer group approaches to improving community health. Discuss the aims, essential services and principles of public health. Discuss the 5 actions of the Ottawa Charter and demonstrate how it can be used as the basis for an interprofessional approach to health interventions. Question Instructions Describe 3 different strategies for changing the risky health behaviour you have discussed in previous two workbook activities, ideally Australian strategies, but international strategies can be used (specify which community / country). A strategy can include a health promotion campaign or intervention, advocacy, training, policy etc. Note that media eg. Quit advertisement, is often part of a larger campaign, it is this larger campaign we are looking for as one of the three strategies (not three individual actions of the campaign). The 3 strategies need to be different from each other, run by different organisations and not from the same source. At least 1 strategy needs to target either an individual, a community or population and at least 1 other strategy must target either individuals, a community or population, i.e. you should not discuss 3 strategies to change the behaviour for an individual or for a population. For each strategy you need to briefly indicate (in 200 words for each strategy): Who is the strategy targeted at? What the strategy is about? What are the actions of the strategy? When was the strategy in action? How it is attempting to change the behaviour? Which of the 5 actions of the Ottawa Charter does this strategy address? You can use credible websites, journal articles or government reports for this information. Cite all information correctly. Remember that websites have specific APA 6th requirements. Strategy 1 (Approx. 200 words): Please write your references used in the Workbook B here in APA format. Strategy 2: (Approx. 200 words) Strategy 3: (Approx. 200 words) References Ajzen, I. (2007). Attitudes, Personality and Behavior. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill International (UK) Ltd. Baker, P., & Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (Great Britain). (2007).Teenage pregnancy and reproductive health. London: RCOG Press. Bulatao, R. A., & Anderson, N. B. (Eds.). (2004). Understanding racial and ethnic differences in health in late life: A research agenda. National Academies Press. Carlson, K. J., Eisenstat, S. A., & Ziporyn, T. D. (2004). The new Harvard guide to womens health. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Fleming, D. T., & Wasserheit, J. N. (1999). From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: the contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of HIV infection. Sexually transmitted infections, 75(1), 3-17. Fertman, C. I., & Allensworth, D. D. M. (2010). Health promotion programs: From theory to practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gochman, D. S. (1997). Handbook of health behavior research. New York: Plenum Press. Hagerman, R. J., & Hagerman, P. J. (2002). Fragile X syndrome: Diagnosis, treatment, and research. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Healthinfonet (2010). Indigenous: National « Policies and strategies « Sexual health « Other health conditions « Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. Retrieved June 1, 2014, from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/other-health-conditions/sexual/policies-strategies/indigenous-national Harris, M. F., & Harris, E. (2006). Facing the challenges: general practice in 2020. Medical Journal of Australia, 185(2), 122. Khoury, M. J. (2004). Human genome epidemiology: A scientific foundation for using genetic information to improve health and prevent disease. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press. SLHD (2013). Sexually Transmissible Infections (STIs). Retrieved May 31, 2014, from http://www.slhd.nsw.gov.au/pdfs/sexualhealthstrategy.pdf Read More