Cause, Intervention, and Impact of Childhood Obesity - Research Paper Example

?[Insert Here] [Insert Your Here] [Insert and Number Here] 03 April Childhood Obesity Introduction “Being overweight or obese as a child can have a significant impact on physical and mental health” (McBride). In fact, studies show that some children between the ages of three and eight years of age already have visible vascular lesions in radiographic images (McBride). For a child to be considered obese, it means they have a body mass index (BMI) that is at, or above, the 95th percentile for his or her age and gender (Caprio et. al. 2211). This occurs in children when an abnormal amount of fat accumulates all over the body. Specifically obesity is caused by consuming more than the body can use, or its requirement to produce energy (Lawrence 84). Even though parents are responsible for teaching their children to make healthy choices, society enables childhood obesity because unhealthy options are more readily available and there is a lack of awareness regarding the serious mental and physical issues associated with obesity. Historical Perspective In 1960, the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) measured the prevalence of obesity amongst the American population. The results of this first survey showed “15% of children aged 12-17 qualified as obese” (Buiten & Metzger). The third survey, conducted for the period between 1988 and 1991 revealed an increase from 15% to 22% for children and adolescents 12-17 years of age (Buiten & Metzger). According to Lawrence, it was estimated that more than 18 million children were considered obese in 1990, and over the last twenty years, the number of overweight American children has dramatically increased (84). Lawrence suggests society is a major contributor to the astounding rise in childhood obesity, stating “there has been a shift towards a ‘sedentary’ (low activity) way of life in children, which has been influenced by an increase in automation in daily life” (85). Cross-Cultural Analysis Culture is the collection of understandings and experiences shared by a population. The term refers to the set of standard behavior and rules that are normal—what people should do—and pragmatic—how it should be done. Culture is not innate, it must be learned. Among the given population, these standards and rules are distributed, so to speak. Thus, culture allows people to use attitudes, knowledge, and practices, to communicate and behave in ways that are interpretable. Therefore, one of the shared understandings within culture pertains to obesity. Different cultures have different views and perspectives on what is considered obese, and whether or not those in the given ethnic group or society perceive being overweight as an illness, sign of beauty or wealth, or a combination of ideals (Caprio et. al. 2214). While the United States has the highest population of obese children, the United Kingdom has reported the steepest increase from 2000 to present (McBride). Even within these two broad culture categories there are many subcultures, such as race and ethnicity that play a pivotal role in childhood obesity. The shared understandings amongst people of a specific race or ethnicity, such as Hispanics, for example, will most likely differ in certain categories from African-Americans in their beliefs relating to what should be done and how it should be done; or the normal and pragmatic rules of engagement. Views on healthy lifestyles such as dieting and exercising regularly and relaxation activities like playing video games and watching television constantly will change as members within these subcultures recognize new practices and lose interest or disvalue previous practices (Caprio et. al. 2214-5). Another major cultural factor that contributes to, or prevents, childhood obesity has to do with the way communities where people live and work. It is important for city planners to keep physical and social aspects related to healthy lifestyles in mind when designing and organizing communities. It is necessary for communities to be laid out so that members of the community feel safe walking or bicycling to and from school or work. When they have access to a variety of recreational activities and shopping, it encourages a greater amount of physical activity (Caprio et. al. 2218). Communities need to breed environments that encourage children to leave the video games and television and venture outdoors. It may be that children want to go outside and play, but parents are too concerned for their safety, and keep them indoors. Research shows there is a link between “parents’ perceptions of neighborhood safety and childhood obesity” (Caprio et. al. 2218). Specifically, studies have shown there are fewer full-service grocery stores within impoverished communities and poorer neighborhoods. Instead, there are many convenience stores and gas stations that sell foods that are less nutritious. According to Caprio et. al., “urban stores tend to stock fewer healthier foods and have less variety of foods” (2218). The United States government has a significant impact on healthy food options as well. The federal farm subsidy program is opposite of healthy nutrition practices. Publications promote the need for consumption of fruits and vegetables, but these items tend to be much more expensive than readily available, unhealthier options (Caprio et. al. 2218). Statistical Analysis Although obesity is increasing among children from all cultural backgrounds, research reveals it is increasing at a much higher rate for ethnic, or non-white, populations of children. In addition to race and ethnicity, children who have proven to be at a greater risk for developing obesity are those born from two obese parents and children who come from low-income families (Buiten & Metzger). According to Caprio et. al., “the reasons for the differences in prevalence of childhood obesity among groups are complex, likely involving genetics, physiology, culture, socioeconomic status (SES), environment, and interactions among these variables as well as others not fully recognized” (2211-2). Specifically, as of 2000, almost 80% of children born from two obese parents were obese during childhood, 40% of children born from one obese parent, and only 7% born from parents not considered obese (Buiten & Metzger). While it may be genetic, a major factor is learned behavior or culture. Based on these statistics, it can be deduced that two obese parents were most likely born from obese parents, and so on. Thus, learned behaviors are being passed on, because a lack of awareness of any other way is ignored or unavailable. This link between parent and child obesity has been supported by a number of studies, particularly a 1997 report from the New England Journal of Medicine (Buiten & Metzger). In the study, researchers followed the BMI of 854 infants, from birth to the age of twenty-one. The results supported the claim that prior to age three, parental obesity served as the greatest factor in the child’s risk of becoming an obese adult. For example, a 3-year-old in the study with non-obese parents had only an 8% chance of becoming an obese adult. However, an obese 3-year-old, with one obese parent, had an 83% chance of becoming an obese adult (Buiten & Metzger). Cause, Intervention, and Impact Many attempted childhood obesity prevention programs for school-aged children have been unsuccessful; as can be seen by the continued increase of the problem. However, Birch and Ventura suggest the reason prevention programs fail is because they are focused on elementary school-aged children (74). The research they have analyzed reveals that more than 25% of preschool-aged children are already obese when they enter preschool (Birch & Ventura 74). It is critical to understand the influence of variables mentioned above, such as physiology, SES, culture, environment, interactions, and genetics, on the patterns of physical activity and eating, which lead to obesity. Understanding this will help with the process of developing meaningful public policies and interventions to prevent, as well as treat, childhood obesity (Caprio et. al. 2211-2). School plays a critical role as a major opportunity for childhood obesity intervention. A number of studies have been conducted in elementary, middle, and high schools to determine whether prevention programs actually affected children’s choices, activity, and awareness of health issues; however, the studies have returned mixed results (Caprio et. al. 2217-8). In 2008, a trial involving primarily minority students from low-income families was conducted at the middle-school level. The goal was to identify whether a comprehensive environmental approach to education involving physical education, classroom curriculum, food services, and a social marketing campaign would prove successful in reducing the prevalence of outcomes such as obesity and related health factors such as Type 2 Diabetes. Like many other studies on the subject, the results were mixed—highly inconclusive (Caprio et. al. 2217-8). Rather than simply teach programs and promote healthy choices, perhaps a more viable option is to change programs so there is no other alternative. For example, an obstacle to children achieving the recommended sixty minutes of physical exercise each day, is that most schools in the United States hardly provide even thirty minutes of physical activity to students on a daily basis (Caprio et. al. 2218). To begin, a policy that changes the amount of physical activity required per day, providing students and staff with the appropriate equipment and tools to make it a reality would be extremely beneficial in reaching more positive results (Caprio et. al. 2218). Another area of opportunity in the school system is the National School Lunch Program (NSLP). As of 2008, Caprio et al. report that approximately 28 million of the estimated 58 million school children in the United States participated in the subsidized NSLP; 8 million participated in the breakfast program as well. Further evaluation of the participants of the NSLP revealed the school children to be primarily minority and those from low-income families. In participating in the program, the average child is consuming only one-third of the recommended daily nutrition and calorie intake. This figure increases to three-fifths for children who participate in both the lunch and breakfast programs. The NSLP relies upon foods that are both donated and purchased at low prices by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The majority of these foods, which include pork, turkey, chicken, and beef, are typically high in fat (Caprio et. al. 2218). While three-fifths is reported to be better than what the child is consuming at home and on the weekends, when not attending school, the role of the NSLP is being compromised by snacks like chips and baked goods, candy, and soft drinks that are being made available to students. According to Caprio et. al. “about 20% of schools offer brand-name fast food items” (2218). Thus, similar to the issues discussed related to the lack of an adequate amount of physical education in schools, policies regarding food availability in schools must be reevaluated for any future prevention and treatment programs of childhood obesity to be successful. Conclusion In conclusion, although parents are responsible for teaching their children to make healthy choices throughout their life, society enables childhood obesity for two main reasons. First, because unhealthy options are more attractive to children and more readily available to busy parents, in the form of fast-food, candy, and other snacks. But most importantly, there is a lack of awareness regarding the serious mental and physical issues associated with obesity. Works Cited Birch, L L, and A K Ventura. "Preventing childhood obesity: What works?" International Journal Of Obesity (2005) 33 Suppl 1.(2009): S74-S81. MEDLINE with Full Text. EBSCO. Web. 3 Apr. 2011. Buiten, C, and B Metzger. "Childhood obesity and risk of cardiovascular disease: A review of the science." Pediatric Nursing 26.1 (2000): 13. CINAHL Plus with Full Text. EBSCO. Web. 3 Apr. 2011. Caprio, Sonia, Stephen R. Daniels, Adam Drewnowski, Francine R. Kaufman, Lawrence A. Palinkas, Arlan L. Rosenbloom, and Jeffrey B. Schwimmer. “Influence of race, ethnicity, and culture on childhood obesity: Implications for prevention and treatment: A consensus statement of Shaping America's Health and the Obesity Society.” Diabetes Care November 31(2008):2211-2221. Print. Lawrence, J. "Childhood obesity." British Journal of Perioperative Nursing 15.2 (2005): 84. CINAHL Plus with Full Text. EBSCO. Web. 3 Apr. 2011. McBride, D. "Childhood obesity." Practice Nurse 39.11 (2010): 40-45. CINAHL Plus with Full Text. EBSCO. Web. 3 Apr. 2011. Read More