Human Development and Behavior - Essay Example

Human Development and Behavior Introduction When an individual is barraged by an external stimulus for which one may not be prepared, like a loss of a loved one, the body reacts (Citron 2007). Concurrent with James-Lange theory of emotions, “emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. According to this theory, you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions.” (Van Wagner 2009) As a consequence, dramatic physiological and psychological changes take place. Stressful situations drain off one’s energy and change the outlook on one’s future in life. Too much tension exacerbates an individual’s psychological state and drains the energy. Differences in vulnerability to losses, stress, and prejudice due to perceptions, experiences, orientation, and outlook on the future are unique to the individual. It is in this regard that this paper aims to discuss the case of Salma, an Asian woman, widowed twice, and had a history of depression. She is currently living with her four children in a poor living environment. They have experienced racial prejudice and economic distress in addition to loss and bereavement and stress. The objectives, therefore, of this essay are threefold: (1) to discuss how the aforementioned issues affect the health habits of Salma and her four children; (2) to suggest coping mechanisms to address the issues and assist Salma and the children; and (3) to present and evaluate the discourse utilizing appropriate referencing in responding to human behavior and development. ISSUES AFFECTING SALMA AND THE CHILDREN Loss and Bereavement According to Delaune and Ladner (2006) “loss is an inevitable part of life, and the longer a person lives, the more losses will be experienced” (p. 377). Salma, in the case, at a young age, experienced two consecutive losses of her husbands. Her history of depression, as mentioned, could be due to the first loss of her husband. The second loss provoked memories of grief and aggravated her abilities to cope. As Elisabeth Kübler-Ross presents in her famous five stages of grief model, Salma is undergoing stage 4 which is depression. At this stage, Ross averred that “it's the dress rehearsal or the practice run for the 'aftermath' although this stage means different things depending on whom it involves. It's a sort of acceptance with emotional attachment. It's natural to feel sadness and regret, fear, uncertainty, etc. It shows that the person has at least begun to accept the reality.” Walter and McCoyd (2009) averred that “Freud was one of the first to address grief, melancholia, and mourning in a scholarly manner. He contributed the understanding that mourning can occur for things/values and statuses and does not only occur in response to a death.” (p.4) Freud theory of behavior states that “the psyche “cathects” people and loved entities with libidinal energy that must be withdrawn for a mourner to heal after loss. He believed people experiencing melancholia (what we might now refer to as dysthymia or depression) had not successfully withdrawn the libidinal energy (cathexis) and needed help to do this.” (ibid. p.4) This is exactly the behavior being exhibited by Salma by undergoing a period of depression, she failed to cleanse and relieve her emotions of the pains associated with the deaths of her loved ones and therefore, evidence speaks that she needs help to do this. In Browlby’s (1982) studies, his theory proposes that “grief occurs when attachment bonds are severed”. In Salma’s case, she is experiencing the phase of disorganization and despair and can’t seem to find ways and means of moving on. In the case of the children, they are directly affected by the loss of their father and/or step father, as the case may be. Depending on the development stage they are in, children have been known to have different perceptions of death and corresponding potential development disruptions. One of the greatest philosopher and child psychologist of these times is Jean Piaget who, according Papert, was the first to take children’s thinking seriously. (1999 par. 2) His famous four stages of childhood development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) could be utilized to deduce that Salma’s children are in the concrete operational and formal operational stage. (ibid. par. 9) Based on case facts, without any mention of the ages of the children, it can be assumed that they are of preschool and school age. At preschool age, the children still perceive death as a temporary separation. The death of the natural father might have potential development disruptions especially significant psychological problems. This could have been aggravated by the fact that as Asians, they experience racial discrimination and social prejudice; as evidenced by “English children fought with them”. (Ewels, 2003) As such, the children are deprived of a normal play environment which is constrained by their space at home and by the racial issues in the park. Play is very important for growing children because it is a mechanism that provides education and develop relationships. It is also an important tool that helps reduce fear and anxiety (Frasca 2008). At school age, Delaune and Ladner averred that the children are already aware that death is final and inevitable. However, due to their tender age, these children could still have nightmares and may engage in death-avoidance behaviors (like leaving the lights on or hiding under the covers at night). Stress Stress is defined as the body’s physiological reaction to any stimulus that evokes a change (Delaune and Ladner, 2006, p. 445). The stressors in Salma’s case are: the death of both of her husband – one after the other, the burden of being left alone to support her four growing children, racial prejudice and poor living conditions. By closely examining the stressors, these are of diverse types: physiological: trauma (from loss), discomfort (living condition); psychological: worry, fear, anger; cognitive: thoughts and perceptions of plotting, depression; environmental: poor living conditions and racial prejudice; and sociocultural: racial and ethnicity, and living conditions. Due to the enormity and perceived gravity of the stressors, Salma exhibited an inability to cope leading to the development of a crisis. Ineffective coping was identified as a nursing diagnosis for clients experiencing anxiety (Carpenito, 2004; Doenges, et.al., 2002). The prominent characteristics here being exhibited by Salma are: inability to meet basic needs, inability to solve problems, inappropriate use of defense mechanisms, and verbalization of inability to ask for help. If these symptoms persist, the onset of illness occurs. For the children, the loss of their father is not as perceived as a threat to their very existence due to the physical presence of their mother. However, the cramped and poor living conditions also create stress. In addition, their cultural and ethnic descent causes racial prejudice which also contributes stress for the children. Since there was no mention in the case of any unusual behavioral patterns, it can be assumed that at this stage, being youngsters, they still possess coping behaviors. The National Association for School Psychologists (NASP 2003) presented tips in helping children cope with loss, death and grief. These tips would assist both parents and teachers in addressing and responding to this trauma. To name a few, the tips mention: (1) allow children to be the teachers about their grief experiences; (2) don’t assume that every child in a certain age group understands death in the same way or with the same feelings; (3) Grieving is a process, not an event; (4) Don’t lie or tell half-truths to children about the tragic event; (5) Encourage children to ask questions about loss and death; (6) Let children know that you really want to understand what they are feeling or what they need; and (7) Understand that grief work is complicated, from among others. As indicated earlier, the benefit of play would critically help reduce anxiety and stress for the children. Therefore, appropriate measures should be immediately undertaken to allot a safe space to give them the privilege to play. Attitudes and Prejudice Attitudes are simply defined as “belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events.” (Neill, undated). Prejudice, on the other hand, is defined as “a baseless and usually negative attitude toward members of a group. Common features of prejudice include negative feelings, stereotyped beliefs, and a tendency to discriminate against members of the group.” (Van Wagner 2009) The concerns previously discussed (loss and bereavement, stress) contributed an altered state of behavior for Salma which affected her manner of thoughts. Her history of depression due to the loss of her first husband was reactivated and triggered by the death of her second husband. She felt a heavy burden of being left alone to support her four growing children in a foreign country. Although it was not mentioned in the case if she was currently employed, it is safe to assume that she does not have any employment due to the trauma and depression that she is experiencing. This is the reason why Salma was seeking for alternative means to seek repairs for her house to improve the living conditions for the sake of her children. These attitudes bordering on thoughts of psychological problems pose impending dangers to her personal health and that of her children. Unsafe and poor living conditions are detrimental to health. Thoughts that people are plotting against her might make her overprotective of her children, thereby preventing them to engage in social interactions with other children. This would stunt their growth and development due to constrained playing environment and a limited circle of friends. Prejudice, on the other hand, is due to the difference in racial and cultural descent. Being Asians, studies attest to the veracity that there still exist some people from the Western culture who perceived that they are the superior race. As Parks (1999) indicted, “multicultural education is the key curriculum reform in combating racism”. The prevalence of prejudice is alarming and would have an effect on the growth and development of Salma’s children. There is a strong possibility that they will grow up with feelings of inferiority due to racism and discrimination would further dampen their confidence and contribute to a pessimistic outlook of the future. Studies conducted by Professor Adam Rutland delve as to “when and how children’s prejudice is influenced by self-presentation; how intergroup contact can reduce childhood prejudice; the social and cognitive basis to children’s evaluations of peers within intergroup contexts (the development of subjective group dynamics); ethnic identification and acculturation amongst ethnic minority and majority children”. (Rutland & Levy 2007) These studies confirm the importance of social interaction, intergroup relationships and developing diverse circle of friends. COPING MECHANISMS The mechanisms which would help Salma and the children would be discussed in the light of addressing the aforementioned issues: loss, bereavement, stress, attitudes and prejudice. First and foremost, Salma should be assisted by a health care practitioner or a professional in the following tasks in order to successfully deal with her loss. According to Worden (1982), Salma, with assistance from a community health care practitioner must perform the following: “(1) accept the fact that the loss is real; (2) experience the emotional pain and grief; (3) adjust to an environment without the deceased; and (4) reinvest the emotional energy once directed at the deceased into another relationship”. (p. 484). She could have accepted the loss and have continued lingering in emotional pain. But the trauma of this situation prevented her from coping with difficult situations. Counseling and therapy should be provided for Salma who have so many situational stressors that exceeded her ability to cope. (Ross 1969) In addition, there are stress management techniques which are suggested by Swinton (2005), Johnson & Figley (2002) such as exercise, relaxation techniques, progressive muscle relaxation, guided imagery and cognitive reframing or thought stopping. For Salma, an immediate cognitive reframing would be required. This is a technique based on a theory proposed by Beck (1976) which “alters one’s perceptions and interpretations by changing one’s thoughts”. This could stop her perceived thoughts that people are plotting against her by utilizing professional assistance and guidance. Actually, the study of utilizing cognitive behavior was undertaken by Albert Bandura where his theory focuses on the concept of “reciprocal determinism:  the world and a person’s behavior cause each other.” (Boeree 2006) Accordingly, “the therapy Bandura is most famous for, however, is modeling therapy.  The theory is that, if you can get someone with a psychological disorder to observe someone dealing with the same issues in a more productive fashion, the first person will learn by modeling the second.” (ibid par. 36) The specific coping mechanisms which can assist Salma and the children are as follows: (1) Assist her to be connected with others in the community through support groups and social groups from churches, neighborhood, and apartment associations, and community support groups. (2) Seek assistance utilizing the Common Assessment Framework (CAF 2009) by undergoing an assessment to appropriate address the needs of the children which should immediately be met. (3) Assist her in claiming state benefits, specifically for financial help for lone parent. There are several options she can avail from the Child Support Agency such as child maintenance, child maintenance premium, child care costs, among others. (Directgov 2009) (4) Avail of Employment and Support Allowance. Since Salma is not able to work due to her health condition, she is qualified to apply for this assistance. (5) Avail of Jobseeker’s allowance if she would be in the process of looking for a job. The official government website for UK citizens can seek job hunting, childcare and financial advise using this site (Directgov 2009). (6) Assist Salma in seeking advise on appropriate children’s activities which can be done indoors while the issue of racisms is being addressed. (7) Seek the appropriate school administrators of the children in addressing racism and cultural diversity. Conclusion Salma and her children’s problems on human development and behavior may appear complex due to the intricate factors which complicate their family’s health and living conditions. As community health care practitioners who are closer to their residence, these issues provide one with the opportunity to evaluate and assess the root causes of the problems and seek available interventions after considering the patient’s profile, background, experiences and possible outcomes. Each case should be treated individually and unique. Coping mechanisms could also vary depending on a monitored progress of the patient once applied. In Salma’s case, the consecutive losses of her loved ones provided the impetus for tensions and fear to seep in. Health care practitioners should recognize that assisting patients like Salma entails interventions that promote positive adoption to stress. By assisting Salma to regain her ability to manage stressors, she could be regaining her problem solving behavior. Consequently, by coming to terms with the loss, Salma would be accorded with the opportunity to establish new social patterns and relationships. And who knows, she might have opened her heart to accept another husband who would be able to assist her and her children in facing a more optimistic future. References Beck, A. (1976). Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorder. New York: International Universities Press. p. 56. Boeree, C.G. (2006). ALBERT BANDURA 1925 – present. Personality Theories. Retrieved on April 28, 2009. p. 1 from Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss. Vol 2, Separation, Anxiety and Anger. New York: Basic Books. p. 350. Carpenito, L.J. (2004). Handbook of Nursing Diagnosis. 10th edition. Philadelphia, Lippincot, Williams & Wilkins. p. 203. Citron, D.B. (2007). The Phenomena of Group Grief. Nursing Forum Vol. 5, Issue 4, pp. 8 – 23. Common Assessment Framework (CAF) (2009). Royal Kingston. p. 2. Retrieved On April 27, 2009 from Delaune, S.C. & Ladner, P.K. (2006). Fundamentals of Nursing: Standards & Practice. 3rd edition. Thomas Asian Edition. Thomson Delmar Learning, Singapore. Pp. 377 & 445. Directgov. (2009). Financial help for lone parents. Pp. 2 & 3. Retrieved on April 27, 2009 from Doenges, M.E., Townsend, M.C., Moorhouse, M.F., & Geissler, A.C. (2002). Nursing Care Plans: Guidelines for individualizing client care (6th ed.) Philadelphia, F.A. Davis. Page 150. Ewels, L. & Simnett, I. (2003). Promoting Health: A Practical Guide. Bailliere, Tindall. Page 2. Frasca, P. (2008). Child’s Play. Hospital Management. Net. Page 3. Retrieved on April 27, 2009 from Ross, E. (1969). The Elisabeth Kübler-Ross 'Grief Cycle'. Alan Chapman. Page 4. Retrieved on April 27, 2008 from Rutland, A.A.D. & Levy, S. (2007). 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