Alcohol Addiction and Adolescents - Essay Example

Alcohol Addiction and Adolescents Introduction The use of alcohol is prevalent among Australian adolescents, and high-risk consumption is a severe and increasing issue. An extensive range of individual, peer, family, school, and community factors have been identified as being possible causes that enable the development of teenage alcohol use and abuse. This paper, consequently, will be exploring the misuse of alcohol among adolescents by, primarily, describing the patterns of teenage alcohol consumption, following which a critical review of current literature will be discussed. Several theories relating to the aetiology of alcohol use will then be analysed, through which an attempt will be made to identify the major reasons why so many adolescents choose to drink. Looking at Statistics While there is widespread recognition of the problem of alcohol abuse among adolescents, the causes for such behaviour remain contentious. In 2001, the National Drug Strategy Household Survey reported that approximately two-thirds of 14-17 year-olds used alcohol, with almost one-fifth admitting that they consumed alcohol on a regular basis, while the Australian Temperament Project (ATP) revealed that some 25 percent of 13-14 year-olds had used alcohol within the previous month. The project also reported a serious increase in the amount of adolescents using alcohol, with 60 percent of 15-16 year-olds, and 85 percent of 17-18 year-olds, having consumed alcohol within the past month (Smart, Vassallo, Sanson, Richardson, Dussuyer et al.2003). The misuse of alcohol among adolescents is an increasingly serious problem. Although it has been shown that many teenagers do not suffer from alcohol-related problems (Bonomo, Coffey, Wolfe, et al., 2001), there exists a large sub-group who engage in dangerous levels of drinking. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW 2003), for example, reported that approximately 35 percent of 14-17 year-olds, and 64 percent of 18-24 year-olds, consume high-risk levels of alcohol. The incidence of dangerous drinking patterns was even higher among Australia’s Indigenous youth (AIHW 2003). Literature Review Extensive literature searches were carried out through the Internet and through private subscriptions to on-line libraries, such as Questia. The information that was sought as part of the literature review included research or discussion concerning the causes or reasons for alcohol consumption among Australian adolescents (this included journal articles, reports, etc.), and research, evaluation or discussion that addresses recent interventions and initiatives to combat the misuse of alcohol among Australia’s youth. Search Strategy: Various combinations of different search terms were employed to identify relevant literature. These included: Drinking behaviour; Alcohol use; Binge drinking; Australia and alcohol, Problems with alcohol Australian youth; Underage drinking; Alcohol-related harms; Alcohol education; Alcohol prevention; Alcohol statistics. Items that were found were subsequently checked for any additional references, following which a methodical web search was then undertaken in order to search for published material using search engines such as Google Scholar. Finally, another internet search was undertaken to find additional information through Australia’s key websites. A list of the sites searched is provided in Appendix 1. The majority of literature referred to in this paper was accessed from the internet. Almost all of the journal articles and books listed in the references were obtained through Questia (www.questia.com/). Where possible, web links have been provided to specific reports. Several recent research projects were also accessed through the internet. The Australian Temperament Project (ATP), an important study that involved a representative sample of approximately 2400 families, was initiated in 1983. Children, who were between four and eight months old, were subsequently followed over a twenty year period, during which 13 waves of data were collected concerning the children’s lives. Information was provided by parents, child health nurses, teachers, and from the children themselves once they had reached twelve years old, who provided details of substance use, along with many other characteristics of their lives. The study was primarily focused on the children’s personal development, growth, and well-being. A more recent study, which was carried out by the Australian Institute of Family Studies in 2004, considered the way in which parents or methods of parenting, influence adolescent alcohol use. The report demonstrates the way in which international interventions, which are targeted towards changing both parental behaviours and education, have enabled long-term reductions in the use of alcohol among Australia’s youth. The report concludes by suggesting six ways in which policies and practices can effectively combat alcohol abuse (Hayes, Smart, et al., 2004). The Drinking Culture in Australia Alcohol, which is legal, controlled, and widely available throughout Western society, is an unquestionable characteristic of contemporary Australian social culture. The vast majority of Australian adults drink alcohol, even if this is occasional, with most using alcohol both positively and in moderation. However, current research has demonstrated that Australia’s drinking culture both supports and condones excessive alcohol usage, which includes harmful behaviour patterns of both intoxication and binge drinking (Hayes, Smart, et al., 2004). Although binge drinking among adolescents is causing particular concern in Australia, it is not exclusive to teenagers. The drinking behaviour of young people is significantly affected by the surrounding culture. In consequence, adolescent drinking reflects the norms and culture of adult practices, which often accepts dangerous drinking habits and intoxication – something that is considered by many as being culturally acceptable. There have been various attempts made to both understand why so many adolescents choose to drink, and the ways in which harmful drinking practices can be reduced. The vast majority of these pointed towards the need of positive parenting accompanied by parental education, which ultimately led to the implementation of various national and international interventions, some of which have proved to be successful in reducing adolescent alcohol consumption (Hayes, Smart, et al., 2004). However, other research has demonstrated other causes. The relationship between the use of alcohol and various cognitive variables, which include expectancies and the reasons behind adolescent drinking, has been widely addressed in literature. Expectancies can be separated from the reasons or motives for drinking, due to the fact that ‘expectancy’ relates to the anticipation of a predictable association between the use of alcohol and a particular festive occasion (Goldman et al., 1987), whereas ‘reasons’ would suggest that an individual is participating in a behaviour practice purely in order to obtain a desired effect (Cox and Klinger, 1988). The first investigative research to link reasons for drinking with the use of alcohol was conducted by Jessor et al., in 1968, through which the conceptualization of positive reasons for adolescent alcohol consumption enabled the identification of four scales: constructive social purposes, personal effects, status transformation, and conformity reasons (Jessor et al., 1968; Rachal et al., 1975; Barnes, 1981). Society recognizes or perceives social functions as acceptable reasons for drinking, which fundamentally link the use of alcohol to activities of a festive, pleasurable, and sociable nature (Rachal et al., 1975). The second aspect, which is described as “coping”, which was a concept that was labelled by Jessor et al., (1968) as the “personal effect” of drinking, was identified as the function which links the use of alcohol as a way of resolving personal and/or psychological problems. Drinking, consequently, is utilized as a means of escaping from, or for giving relief to, such difficulties (Rachal et al., 1975). Correspondingly, later motivational models relating to the use of alcohol suggested an association between the reasons for drinking and the actual amount of alcohol consumption. In 1988, for example, Cox and Klinger proposed a theoretical framework that based its understanding of the rapport between reasons and subsequent drinking patterns on the assumption that individuals drink in excess in order to achieve a desired effect or outcome. This theory was consequently used by Cooper (1994) to develop a four-point model of motivational factors, through which she proposed that teenage alcohol usage is influenced by conformity, social, enhancement, and coping motivations. Conformity and social motives, which are externally produced, are based on the need to be socially accepted or to receive positive social rewards. In contrast, enhancement and coping motivations, which are more likely to be internally produced, involves the use of alcohol to enable the individual either to heighten feelings of apparent well-being or to reduce negative emotions (Cooper, 1994). However, although these factors may be evident within adolescent drinking, current research links parental influence with teenage drinking patterns. Although a large number of researchers have projected the notion that parents have a very limited influence on their children’s alcoholic intake, along with the common assumption that peer pressure plays a far more important role (Johnson & Johnson, 2000), other research material does not support this hypothesis. The association between high alcoholic intake and insufficient parental guidance and monitoring has been consistently demonstrated through several major studies (Barnes et al., 2000; Thomas et al., 2000; Guo et al., 2001; Hayes, Smart, et al., 2004), the findings of which show that children who are poorly monitored begin drinking at an earlier age, are likely to drink more, and are also more susceptible to developing excessive drinking patterns. Another consequence of poor parental monitoring indicates that such adolescents tend to associate with peers who practice the same drinking practices. Hayes, Smart, et al., also found that many parents were unaware of, or underestimated, their teenager’s use of alcohol, with the vast majority of parents being more concerned about illegal substances rather than the consumption of alcohol. They point out that many Australian parents are under pressure to accept the use of alcohol among adolescents as “normal”, while also feeling inadequate to deal with many of the issues concerning the “right age” to permit the use of alcohol and/or whether they should allow their adolescent to drink alcoholic beverages at all(Hayes, Smart, et al., 2004). Research shows that harsh parenting methods and/or discipline, along with the presence of high levels of conflict, influence the use of alcohol among adolescents, but that this is often through indirect links that are affected by other parenting practices, such as monitoring (Ary et al., 1999; Brody and Ge, 2001). Through the use of a longitudinal study, for example, Brody and Ge (2001) demonstrated that harsh and/or high conflict parenting methods remained relatively stable, while adolescents’ self-regulation mediated the pathways connecting this style of parenting and the use of alcohol. However, another study (Duncan et al., 1998) revealed direct and indirect associations between parent-adolescent conflict (accompanied by inadequate monitoring), and the amount of alcohol abuse among a sample of 664 teenagers aged between 14 and 17 years, which clearly demonstrated an escalation in the use of alcohol over time. Parental permissiveness, in relation to adolescent alcohol consumption, has also been show to lead towards the increased use of alcohol. Wood et al., (2004), for example, found that those adolescents whose parent’s had tended to be more permissive, were more susceptible to engaging in heavy drinking sessions. The same study also revealed that not only did parental permissiveness influence the choice of friendships, but that the relationship between peer influence and alcohol use were significantly affected by such parental practices. According to recent research, adolescent rebellion against parental authority, which is when parental practices fail or are ineffective, strongly influences an adolescent’s choice to use alcohol. Jackson (2002), who carried out a cross-sectional study of 959 teenagers that determined the intention to drink, found that rebellious adolescents were four times more like to become heavy drinkers. The same research also demonstrated that the teenagers of authoritative parents (high levels of control, punishment, direction, etc.), were six times more likely to rebel than teenagers that were raised by parents that provided appropriate limits and guidance. In the same way, those adolescents who were raised by parents that were distant (limited engagement and attachment), were 2.5 times more susceptible to rebellious behaviour than those who experienced authoritative parenting practices. This study revealed a strong association between authoritative and distant styles of parenting and rebellious behaviour, which in turn was strongly linked to the use of alcohol. Rather interestingly, the study did not find any significant relationship between those parents who practiced a permissive style of parenting (high contact and affection, but with limited restrictions or demands), and adolescent use of alcohol. According to many observers, alcoholic participation begins in early childhood, during which children observe and learn about the use of alcohol and its affects through both the media and personal exposure. Often portrayed through the mass media as something that is acceptable and, perhaps, desirable, the vast majority of children grow up understanding many aspects of alcohol and its use long before they reach an age where opportunities for drinking begin to arise. In fact, the capacity to identify different forms of alcohol by their smell, which would tend to signify personal exposure, has been recorded in studies concerning preschool children (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2000). The same research also demonstrated that even very young children (3-5 years) considered alcohol to be an adult pastime, while also tending to attribute alcohol consumption more towards adult males. Other studies have recorded that many young children do not approve of drinking, but that this tends to change during puberty, during which many adolescents would appear to positively redefine alcohol. Many teenagers, in fact, come to consider the consumption of alcohol as being a sign of maturity, while also viewing it as an important social requirement (Plant & Plant, 2006). Following early childhood alcohol exposure, the child’s participation continues to develop in accordance with a wide variety of socio-cultural factors. These would include the person’s age, their life stage, and their given social role; the opportunities and demands of the person’s surrounding environment; and the person’s distinctive prototype of neurobiological protection and susceptibility (Klein, 1991). These, and the different reasons already outlined in this paper, are all influential in causing young people to drink. Many teenagers have positive expectations concerning the affects of alcohol, especially within social situations where they believe it will increase confidence, enable a sense of well-being, and create peer bonding and friendship (McBride et al., 2003). A survey, which was carried out in New Zealand in 2003, studied the behaviours and attitudes of 15-17 year old teenagers in relation to the use of alcohol (McMillen, Kalafatelis, & De Bonnaire, 2004). It published the following results: Consuming alcohol will make it easier to meet people and make friends (62%); I drink alcohol because I enjoy the ‘buzz’ that it gives (62%); Drinking alcohol makes you feel relaxed and helps you to wind down (59%). There are also a large number of studies that have suggested that those teenagers, who view alcohol consumption with expectations of positive experiences, tend to drink more, start drinking earlier, and possess the highest risk for developing excessive drinking patterns (National Institute on Alcoholic Abuse and Alcoholism; 1997; Ludbrook et al., 2001; Office of the Surgeon General, 2007). An Australian survey (Shanahan & Hewit, 1999), which was conducted in order to discover the needs of a national alcohol campaign, reported that adolescents aged between 15-17 years identified the major influences in their use of alcohol as being: The desire to try new experiences (79%); The need to socialise with peers (77%); Peer pressure (68%); A way of escaping from their problems (66%); Trying to dispel feelings of inadequacy/insecurity (66%). Conclusion Australia, like the majority of Western cultures, has an attitude towards the consumption of alcohol that is permissive and often glorified. Consequently, children are growing up in an environment that portrays this reality. The mass media and the surrounding socio-culture, both encourage adolescents to view the use of alcohol as being both positive and acceptable, which, as this paper has demonstrated, often results in destructive and harmful drinking patterns. Family attitudes towards drinking and parental practices strongly influence adolescent drinking, with those teenagers often reflecting the drinking patterns of their parents (Li, Pentz, & Chou, 2002). It was also shown that teenagers who rebel against authoritative or distant parenting methods are high risk for alcohol abuse, while the adolescents of parents who practice appropriate parental guidance and monitoring were less likely to drink (Wood et al., 2004). Adolescents, therefore, drink excessive amounts of alcohol mainly because they have been taught to do so by contemporary Australian society. Despite the widespread understanding that the misuse of alcohol can be life threatening, alcohol is still often portrayed as a substance that produces positive experiences. Seen within films, rock concerts, sports events, and numerous other social occasions, alcohol is still clearly present throughout modern society, and often with images that glorifies and condones such behaviour. This, consequently, encourages many adolescents to view alcohol as being both acceptable and desirable, which often results in the misuse of alcohol. References AIHW (2003a), Australia’s Young People: Their Health and Wellbeing 2003, Catalogue No. PHE50, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra. AIHW (2003b), Statistics on Drug Use in Australia, Catalogue No. PHE-43, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra. Ary, D.V., Duncan, T.E., Duncan, S.C. & Hops, H. (1999), Adolescent problem behavior: The influence of parents and peers, Behaviour Research and Therapy, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 217-230. BARNES, G.M. Drinking among adolescents: A subcultural phenomenon or a model of adult behaviors. Adolescence 16:211-229, 1981. Barnes, G.M., Reifman, A.S., Farrell, M.P. & Dintcheff, B.A. (2000), The effects of parenting on the development of adolescent alcohol misuse: A six-wave latent growth model, Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 175-186. Bonomo, Y., Coffey, C., Wolfe, R., Lynskey, M., Bowes, G. & Patton, G. (2001), Adverse outcomes of alcohol use on adolescents, Addiction, vol. 96, pp. 1485-1496. Brody, G.H. & Ge, X. (2001), Linking parenting processes and self-regulation to psychological functioning and alcohol use during early adolescence, Journal of Family Psychology, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 82-94. COOPER, M.L. Motivations for alcohol use among adolescents: Development and validation of a four-factor model. Psychol. Assess. 6:117-128, 1994. COX, W.M. AND KLINGER, E. A motivational model of alcohol use. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 97: 168-180, 1988. Duncan, S.C., Duncan, T.E., Biglan, A. & Ary, D. (1998), Contributions of the social context to the development of adolescent substance use: a multivariate latent growth modeling approach, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 57-71. GOLDMAN, M.S., BROWN, S.A. AND CHRISTIANSEN, B.A. Expectancy theory: Thinking about drinking. In: BLANE, H.T. AND LEONARD, K.E. (Eds.) 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Appendixes Appendix 1 : List of web sites searched Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) http://www.adf.org.au/ Alcohol and other Drugs Council of Australia (ADCA) http://www.adca.org.au/ Community Alcohol Action Network (CAAN) http://www.caan.adf.org.au/ Australian Institute of Family Studies http://www.aifs.gov.au National Drug & Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/ Australian Drug Information Network (ADIN) http://www.adin.com.au/content.asp?Document_ID=1 ADF Drug Information Clearinghouse http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/ Appendix 2 : Percentage of students reporting different levels of drinking experience by age and gender, Australia, 2005 Age (years) 12 13 14 15 16 17 Total Never consumed alcohol Male 24 18 15 9 6 4 14 Female 30 23 13 9 7 5 15 Total 27 20 14 9 6 4 14 Consumed alcohol in past year Male 44 55 67 80 87 89 68 Female 34 48 70 81 86 89 66 Total 39 52 68 80 86 89 67 Consumed alcohol in past month Male 20 28 41 54 69 72 45 Female 13 24 41 54 64 69 42 Total 17 26 41 54 67 70 43 Consumed alcohol in past week (current drinker) Male 12 17 29 36 48 52 30 Female 7 15 25 34 44 46 27 Total 10 16 27 35 46 49 29 Drank on one occasion in past week (Males: 7+ drinks, females: 5+ drinks) Male Read More