Biomedical model of Health and Illness - Essay Example

Health Psychology The biomedical model of health and disease is one that s back to the 19th century and is much a product of the zeitgeist of its time. The biomedical model of health and disease purports that the body is a machine and its operation is governed by the same laws of physics that apply to the running of a machine. Under this model disease is viewed as a malfunction of the complicated machinery that is the human body. This model has been effective in treating diseases over the course of centuries in that it focuses on pathology, physiology and the biochemical changes underlying many of the diseases we see today. In dealing with diseases, the rudimentary causes are ascertained and quantified. This quantification facilitates an assessment of biological risk factors as well as the behavioral risk factors associated with those diseases. It is effective in treating diseases such as strokes, high blood pressure, heart disease and obesity. It has also been instrumental in presenting a clear association between those diseases and behavioral risk factors such as smoking, unhealthy eating habits and lack of exercise. Health psychology, on the hand, utilizes a proactive approach to dealing with the promotion of health and the prevention of disease. In so doing, it utilizes a wide array of biological, physiological and psychological concepts to arrive at a clear and concise understanding of disease prevention as well as health promotion. It exploits the mind-body connection in assessing the root causes of those diseases. Those root causes can be traced to emotional, environmental, social and cognitive-behavioral risk factors. Health psychology utilizes a tri-part approach to dealing with diseases. This approach involves a concise understanding of both the physiological and psychological components of diseases, a proactive approach to disease prevention and an intimate understanding of the effects of diseases on the body. This tri-part approach has the ultimate goal of disease prevention. According Ogden, health psychologists play a vital role in the education of health professionals whereby they are able to stress the importance of dealing with all components of a disease (biological, psychological and psychological components). By bringing emphasis to those areas, health psychologists are able to effectively and efficiently impact the treatment plans developed by physicians and nurses. In offering a clear and concise approach to disease management and prevention, health psychology challenges the biomedical model. It most formidable challenge can be seen in the presentation of empirical support for the mind-body connection. The most substantial support for that connection can be seen in the notion of psychosomatic illnesses. That is the manifestation of disease symptomology without the "normally" associated causal factors for that disease. Essentially this indicates the presence of another cause-the influence of the mind. The mind-body connection stresses the importance of factors such as stress and emotionality in facilitating the presentation of disease symptomology. Bereavement Within the spectrum of health and wellness is the inevitability of death. As humans, we are faced with the notion that by virtue of life, we are destined to die. Some individuals die suddenly while others die after contracting a terminal fatal illness. The contraction of a fatal illness is a difficult concept to come to grips with. Examinations of the manner in which individuals cope with this situation have been instrumental in the formulation of many theories. One of the most significant of theories is that of Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wherein she proposes an emotional response to change model. This model purports that when an individual receives bad news, he/she reacts emotionally by going through five emotional stages. Those changes include denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. These stages follow a natural progression and over the course of time, they yield an adjustment to the change. Essentially denial is a defense mechanism wherein a person rejects a diagnosis or condition because its ramifications are extremely painful or uncomfortable. When denial is operating, an individual may reject a diagnosis or he/she may minimize that diagnosis. One example of this from my personal experience can be seen when my grandmother was diagnosed with cervical cancer. In the onset, she failed to accept the fact that she did have cancer. This denial continued through a great deal of her treatment whereby she would never indicate that she had cancer. She referred to her cancer as a tumor and when asked about the progression of her illness, she would indicate that the tumor was shrinking when the tumor was indeed shrinking but the cancer was spreading. The second stage for dealing with change according to Kubler-Ross is the anger phase. During this phase, the individual becomes enraged and begins to question why he/she had to be the target of the disease condition/change. He/she may attempt to interfere with the treatment being rendered or direct their rage towards the individual delivering the news. In dealing with a person who is currently in the anger phase of the emotional response, it is necessary to acknowledge the fact that the person does have a right to be angry. It is theorized that legitimizing that anger will serve as a means of diffusing it and facilitating the inception of the third stage of coping with change-bargaining. During the bargaining phase, the individual will attempt to make a deal (mainly with the superior being in their lives) in an attempt to gain deliverance from the situation they are currently in. An example of this would be an individual suffering from cancer. When faced with the distinct possibility of death, that individual will plea for deliverance from God in exchange for living a purposeful life from that point forward. The next stage in the emotional cycle for dealing with change is the depression phase which is characterized by a contemptuous sense of inadequacy and a sense of hopelessness manifested in a lack of activity. The final stage in this process is that of acceptance. Acceptance entails realizing that ultimately, the solutions to the situation lies within the individual. In the case of death and bereavement, it entails admitting the situation and its inevitability along with the notion of making the most of a difficult situation. In this five-part process Dr. Kubler-Ross portrays the emotional response as a series of peaks and valleys alternating between active and passive processes. In this series of peaks and valleys denial and depression serve as passive processes while anger and acceptance serve as active processes. Bargaining is an intermediary process which consists of both active and passive elements. The approach represents one of the most comprehensive approaches to dealing with everyday change as well as the ultimate change-death and bereavement. Health Promotion In light of recent medical advances, many individuals as well as organizations have become staunch advocates for the maintenance of health and the prevention of disease. The shift in focus from the treatment to prevention has proven to be a great asset in the saving of both resources and manpower. This trend has facilitated what has become known as a systems approach to diagnosing and treating illness. This approach entails a consideration of the biological, psychological and social components of illness. The psychological components of illness include stress, negative emotionality as evident in depression or anxiety as well as mental illness which precludes the maintenance of health. One of the models that makes an indelible link between psychological components and health maintenance is the health belief model. This model is designed to explain and predict preventive health behavior and delineates six distinctive components-perceived susceptibility, perceived seriousness, perceived benefits of taking action, perceived barriers to taking action, cues to taking action and self-efficacy. Perceived susceptibility has to do with an individual's opinion of chances of getting a particular medical condition. Essentially, it involves the way in which a person processes their chances of contracting a condition and purports that if an individual believes that his/her chances of contracting a disease are high if he/she partakes in a certain action, the likelihood that that behavior will desist is correspondingly great. The notion of perceived seriousness deals with an individual's opinion of the seriousness of a condition and its consequences. Utilizing this operational definition, individuals will tend to refrain from behaviors with the potential of inflicting serious illnesses. Perceived benefits deals with an individual's belief in the effectiveness of an action which is purported to reduce the risk of contracting a disease. It operates under the presumption that if an action is believed to be beneficial to the prevention of a condition, then that action is likely to be undertaken. The notion of perceived barriers to taking an action deals with an individual's understanding of the physical and psychological obstructions to a particular action which is deemed beneficial to the prevention of certain illnesses. The notion of cues to taking action deals with the preparatory measures necessary for precautionary action while self-efficacy deals with an individual's confidence in their ability to take action. The compilation of the above-referenced components is vital in health promotion and maintenance. Child Development Recent history has indicated the indelible link between pediatrics and psychology-one that has life long health implications for each and every individual. Utilizing this link, one is able to instill life-long health principles in children which will transcend throughout the life cycle. It will facilitate healthy lifestyles beginning in childhood which as a product of conditioning and learning will continue throughout the life span. The application of this notion implies the need for an intricate understanding of childhood development and the concept of self as seen through the eyes of a child. When examining the concept of self, many theories of child development come into play. These theories emphasize the perception of personality identity and self-concept. Self-concept is an entity that begins to develop in early infancy and in the inception, it begins with a distinction between self and the world around. This process begins fist with a discovery of the existence of body parts along with their capabilities. This discovery progresses and develops into the ability to manipulate their environments utilizing their hands, legs and mouth. At approximately seven to eight months, infants become aware of strangers and become distrustful of them. During the later part of the first year of life, infants become more deliberate in their exploration of their environments and are cognizant of the behaviors of people around them in that they appropriately imitate those behaviors. By eighteen months of age infants are the benefactors of their hard work aimed at learning what is expected of them in social settings. At eighteen month of age, they are able to recognize themselves in a mirror and are well on their way to cognitive self-awareness in that they have transcended from the condition of being totally unaware, to developing an awareness of their environment and others. The rudiments of self-centeredness are apparent in this stage in that the infant develops a preoccupation with self much at the abandonment of discipline. One of the most poignant determinants of this stage is the reactive nature in which the child behaves. The next year of life, is marked by a great deal of self-awareness. During that time, the child is aware of gender, he/she learns about his/her physical features and characteristics, the qualities of good and bad as well as the boundaries in terms of what he/she can and cannot do. He/she also begins to embody the concepts of pride, guilt, shame and embarrassment. These emotions are very dependent on a clear understanding of social rules in addition to their sense of self. In order to adequately develop a sense of self he/she had to have develop a self-awareness which is a function of self-exploration, cognitive maturity and adequate reflections about self. The acquisition of these skills lends itself to having fulfilled the final stages of cognitive self-awareness-interpretive, causal and mystic. When dealing with the development of self, one important factor that proves vital is that of attachment. In order for a child to develop normally as per all axis of development, it is essential for the child to develop a pattern of proper attachment to his/her parent(s) or guardian(s). One such theory of attachment is a theory proposed by Dr. John Bowlby. According to Dr. Bowlby, the starting point of an infant's relationship with its parent(s)/caregiver(s) is when responding when the child is in need. This relationship is strengthened in time as the parent(s)/caregiver(s) responds to the child with an appropriate frequency. Support for this comes with the child's development of new cognitive and emotional capacities in addition to a history of regular, responsive and reactive care by the parent(s)/caregiver(s). Proving all the aforementioned criteria are met, a secure bond is formed. Dr. Bowlby theorized that this attachment has a prolific impact on the personality of a child in that it serves as a set of expectations on which other interpersonal relationship are built. Read More