Shades of Differences - Research Paper Example

? Shades of Differences: Theorectical Underpinning of the Medical Controversy on Black-White Differences in the United s, 1830-1870 (Nancy Kriegar) Name Professor Institution Course Date Abstract According to Krieger (2012) the character linking scientific theory and ideology is simply exposed by the medical debate on slavery, supposed black inferiority, and racial differences in disease: opposing doctors invoked the same science, but relied on contrary assumptions, to reach antagonistic conclusions. The author further alludes that reductionist, biological determinist, and historical grounds underlay the main belief that inherent racial differences led to black bondage and racial disparities in health; an anti-reductionist and historical approach supported the minority view that social factors rooted in the planters’ need for cheap labor explained both. The correctness, weight, and interpretation of these findings have been debated by doctors from 1830 to 1850. For instance, according to Krieger, in the 1850s, "apolitical" doctors sought to purge medicine of politics to regain scientific objectivity, yet the first generation of black physicians argued that politics inevitably affected medical inquiry. The civil war and liberation triggered studies with regard to the health of blacks and poor whites to social conditions, while the destruction of reconstruction resulted in the re-emergence of racist medicine. Understanding how politics set the conditions and tempo of this polemic can give guidance into recent controversies on racial differences in disease. The inset of the twenty-first century, Americans are in healthier than ever before due to progress in technology advances, preventive medicine, and generally access to health care. Despite this fact, various racial and ethnic groups are least healthy, obtain poorer care, and cannot anticipate living as longer in comparison to others. Statistics show noticeable disparities in life expectancy, mortality, incidence of disease, and causes of death throughout ethnic groups. Many would wonder why such disparities (Brown 1998). According to common knowledge, racial groups are observed as physically evident populations with a common ancestry. In as much as genetics and biology account for a number of aspects of the discrepancy in health condition among ethnic groups, social science evaluations have established that the dominant effect on health of cautious behavior, social and economic differences, communities and conditions, health guidelines, and racist instances. Krieger further states that such extending dynamics perform a major role in explaining racial and ethnic disparities in health outcomes. Even with the rising superiority of biological and genetic research, sociology tells us again that race is not an undeniable group; rather it is a “social category,” subject to alterations, with actual consequences for health and well-being. The United States health care system is described as “provider-friendly”. However, racial prejudices and practices are institutionalized in this system and regularly lead to unequal access to medical care, imbalanced treatment for similar severity of illnesses and conditions, and differences in health insurance protection Public policies also play a part in this equation since they can either strengthen or alleviate these racially dissimilar practices (Krieger 2012). Life and death measures of health status, together with life expectation, infant death, mortality and its mental health and psychological welfare are means to determine the health of a state (Roberta et al. 2005). The authors further state that in the United States, these health maters indicate marked differences among ethnic groups. When sex is included in the analysis, white women have the longest life span of 80.3 years, while African American men have the shortest of 69 years as seen in the table below: There also exist unusual racial and ethnic disparities in infant mortality rates. According to the National Center for Health Statistics data of 2001, African American newborns leads in mortality rates and are more than twice as probable compared to white infants death in their first year after birth. Asian-Pacific American infants have the least mortality rates, but there are notable differences within this population group: Infant mortality ranges from a lowest of 4.3 for Japanese Americans to a high of 8.2 deaths per 1000 live births for Native Hawaiians. Likewise, while Latino newborns overall are less probably compared to non-Hispanic white babies to die in their first year of life, dissimilarities among Latinos vary from 4.7 deaths in 1000 live births for Cubans to 8.1 for Puerto Ricans on the mainland. As with life expectancy, death rates vary among racial and ethnic groups. Asian-Pacific Americans have the lowest death rates, and African Americans the greatest formation that holds true for men and women of both races. African Americans have higher death rates than non-Hispanic whites for eight of the ten leading causes of death. Cause-specific mortality gaps among these groups are, in some cases, substantial. For instance, the death rate from HIV-related disease is ten times bigger for African Americans than for non-Hispanic whites. This information and data is according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2003. Health Opportunities What can possibly explain the disparities in health and psychological well being? The fact that there are sturdy biological and genetic relationships among racial and ethnic groups gives a structure for social science research to look into the wide range of interconnected factors. They comprise individual behaviors, socioeconomic status, residential segregation, community environments, and institutional practices that affect personal health status, collective well-being, and radicalized perceptions of others (Roberta et al. 2005). Race, Behavioral, and Cultural Factors According to Roberta et al. (2005), at the individual-level, behavioral factors influencing health disparities are generally divided into risk-taking and health-promoting behaviors. They further state that such behaviors incorporate the likelihood of preventive exams that is, prostate cancer health-promoting behaviors that is suitable nutrition, physical activity, enough sleep, and health endangering behaviors that is to say smoking, use and abuse of alcohol and addictive drugs, etc. Epidemiologic research proves that African Americans are less likely than white Americans, and Asian Americans more likely to engage in preventive health practices related to diet, smoking, exercise, and use of screening tests (Brown 1998) Cultural practices of racial and ethnic groups— labeled as “cultures of machismo,” “cultures of shame,” or “cultures of repression,” for example—are sometimes used to explain some of these group disparities (Krieger 2012). Attitudes and emotions like stigma and shame can lessen the chances of successful treatment. For instance, research hints that various cohorts of Asian-Pacific Americans are less willing to seek out medical care for socially stigmatized problems, while gay African American men are more likely to conceal an HIV-positive diagnosis and less likely to seek early treatment than whites (Krieger 2012). American Indian, Mexican American, and African American males more often than white American males take part in risk-taking deeds that result in death by mistake and homicide. Additional studies emphasize the evident mental health profit for African Americans of collective engagements like church going, family gatherings, and church-based social services (Brown 1998). However, for the foreign-born population, and more specifically Hispanics and Asian Americans, language obstacles and not being familiar with the U.S. health care system can hinder communication between practitioners and patients, who consequently may stay away from a variety of medical services (Krieger 2012). References Brown, D., R. 1998. “Race, Racism, and Health Related Issues.” Presented at the Conference on Social Science Knowledge on Race, Racism, and Race Relations. American Sociological Association, McLean, VA Krieger, Nancy 2012. Methods for the Scientific Study of Discrimination and Health: An Ecosocial Approach. American Journal of Public Health  Roberta D. R, Terri, AL., & Mercedes, R., 2005. Race, Ethnicity, and the Health of Americans. New York: American Sociological Association. Read More