Relationship That Exists between Individuals and Various Eating Habits - Assignment Example

? (Draft) Major Assignment This research is brought out with the intention of pointing out the relationship that exists between individuals and their various eating habits. The background of this research stems from the general notion that people of a certain age have a particular eating habit, which may be rather variant from the men to the women. In this case, the perception is that women eat a more diverse array of food in comparison to men and in this case, their food choice is a healthy choice. The main aim in this case is to point the psychological constructs behind the choice of food types, which individuals make, and in this case, university students come into perspective. The hypotheses developed in this case are that women tend to be more cautious when it comes to weight and health issues related to food in comparison to men. At the same time, women will be choosier with the types of food, which they eat. The methodology applied in this case will involve 30 participants: 15 men and 15 women of ages ranging from 18 to 30 years. This is generally the age gap of the individuals who are at the university level of education. The data collection would be through the use of questionnaires which would be filled out by the participants. The results pointed out were well in representation of the perceptions, which the individuals of the different genders had. From the results, which came out, it was rather as expected to a great extent. Introduction Several available studies report the differences between food choices and eating habits of men and women. However, the extent of influence of the psychosocial constructs of the theory of planned behaviour, as it relates to gendered eating habits and food choices, has not been given much attention in the researched articles. It is said that women, compared to men, are more dominated by concerns on fat and calorie intake that sometimes lead to eating disorders such as bulimia or anorexia nervosa (Rozin, Bauer and Catanese, 2003; Vagstrand et al., 2007). It is also said that the life expectancy of women is 7 years longer than men, and men in general are more prone to death caused by diseases (Wardle et al., 2004). With such findings, it is thus important to develop a deeper understanding whether the theory of planned behavior as it relates to gender and the possible differences in the choice of foods and/or eating habits between males and females, correlates to these gendered health concerns (Shannon, et al., 2002) and correlates to the overall health of males or females. According to a recent article by Else-Quest et al. (2012), adherence to social norms are influenced by moral emotions such as embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride, and that women experience more of the embarrassment, shame, and guilt moral emotions compared to men. However, Else-Quest et al. (2012) also states that men experience more pride than women do. If these moral emotions influence how an individual adhere to social norms, then there is a great possibility that the gendered stereotypes in diet are affected by these emotions. This concept is linked to Ajzen’s discussion on personal and moral norms. Ajzen (1991) states that one of the determinants of behavior is perceived social pressures, but individual emotions also play a big part. Another study showing the difference between genders in terms of food choices is the article by Caine-Bish and Scheule (2009) stating male children preferred meat, fish, and poultry, while female children preferred the healthier option of fruits and vegetables. This shows that children can also exhibit gender differences in food choices. Accordingly, a study conducted by Lam and Leman (2009) shows that gender and ethnicity affect some children’s judgment regarding other people’s food choices. It cannot be denied that the term ethnicity itself brings to mind the issue of norms within that specific “ethnic” society. If read this way, Lam and Leman’s study, thus, says that social norms do play a part not only in food choices, but also in other people’s perception of other’s food preferences. This influence of ethnicity, or social norms, on food choices correlates to Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior psychosocial construct of perceived social norms. Another study that links the psychosocial constructs of intention and attitude of the theory of planned behavior to eating habits is by Pliner, Remick and Rizvi (2009) who report that women use food as one way to restore self-esteem and self-regard when they feel they failed in a particular arena like jobs and relationships. There is therefore an influence of intention in terms of gendered food choices especially when the competitive situations where they fail place them under upward social comparisons where they are judged based on the social standards on superiority. Furthermore, the female attitude toward food choices when placed under these “failure” situations is inclined toward healthier food choices, which is also part of the perceived gendered eating habits (Pliner, Remick and Rizvi, 2009). Similarly, Levi, Chan and Pence (2006) state that the attitude of males in terms of decisions on food choices are largely based on the gender expectations of the society. All the abovementioned authors conducted studies based on gender and age, and research environments and methods such as observations in school or university cafeterias, food choices in groceries and convenience stores, and interviews regarding eating habits and food choices. Such methods correlate to the chosen research method in this study, and provide a more solid foundation in the research design. However, to ensure that mere replication of previous researches are avoided, one of the focuses of this research study will be to analyze the gap in the current knowledge on the extent of influence of the psychosocial constructs of the theory of planned behavior as it relates to the perceived gendered food choices discussed in the references. Research Question Does the theory of planned behavior explain why, when given with almost a similar array of food choices in university cafeterias, women tend to eat healthier and have healthier eating habits as compared to men? Aims and Hypotheses This paper aims to investigate on the food choices of university students depending on their gender. It aims to analyze if the psychosocial constructs of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) play a role when it comes to food choices and eating habits. Two working hypotheses are chosen for this study: Hypothesis 1: There is a significant difference in food choices between men and women because women tend to be more weight and health conscious and choose healthier foods when given with almost a similar array of food choices. Hypothesis 2: There is a significant difference in food choices between men and women because both genders have different ideas on what are considered healthy foods when given with almost a similar array of food choices. Methods Study Design A quantitative study using a cross-sectional study design will be conducted to determine whether the theory of planned behavior influences the eating habits and food choices of men and women. The psychosocial constructs of the theory will serve as the guideline in preparing the survey questions for the target population. A cross-sectional study design will be quick and easy to implement because it concentrates on studying and drawing conclusions from the existing differences between the chosen sample populations in a snapshot (Burns and Bush, 2010). Comparison of eating habits and food choices of males and females can be done easily and simultaneously. This study design that uses survey methods costs little and needs little time to conduct Participants From the start of defining the scope of the research, it has already been decided that 30 individuals (15 males; 15 females) aged 18-30 would be approached personally and surveyed. The reason behind the equal number of participants to be targeted for the survey is to ensure that both genders will be equally represented in the research. The age brackets were chosen as it was seen to be helpful in not only adding another category for the demographic, but also in identifying any correlations in eating habits and food choices from among younger students to older adults. A convenience sampling method will be used, as respondents will be specifically targeted based on age, approachability, and eating in the university cafeterias. This sampling method is a good choice particularly because of limited resources and a tight academic calendar to follow. Data Collection Data collection will be through a self-administered 15-item questionnaire (Appendix 1) that explores the gendered eating habits and food choices of individuals when given with an almost similar array of food choices. The 15-item questionnaire will take approximately 5-8 minutes to complete. It was developed based on the psychosocial constructs of the theory of planned behavior, and addresses to what extent do personal and moral norms, perceived social norms, intention, and attitude (Ajzen, 1991) affect the male and female eating habits and food choices. Data analysis The data which was collected was significant for the purpose of pointing out the various variables which come into perspective in relation to the eating habits which members of the various genders exhibit. The questionnaires brought to light the issues raised by the hypothesis particularly to do with the eating habits which people have. Results The study involved 30 individuals, 15 male and 15 female respondents. This sample population of 30 individuals as well the equal number chosen for both gender ensured the study was not biased towards any of the gender and that the results was representative of the total population where the sample was derived. In the section, where the questionnaire sought to know the view of the respondent towards whether women should weigh less and eat less, the entire group we interviewed gave a feedback as illustrated in the Table 1 below Table 1: Cross tabulation; Women should weigh less and eat less. Gender * Women should weigh less and eat less. Cross tabulation Women should weigh less and eat less. Total Strongly Disagree Disagree Not sure Agree strongly agree Gender male Count 3 2 3 5 2 15 % within Gender 20.0% 13.3% 20.0% 33.3% 13.3% 100.0% female Count 3 1 5 3 3 15 % within Gender 20.0% 6.7% 33.3% 20.0% 20.0% 100.0% Total Count 6 3 8 8 5 30 % within Gender 20.0% 10.0% 26.7% 26.7% 16.7% 100.0% A total of 13 respondents were of the opinion that women should weigh less and eat less, representing a 43.4 percent of the people sampled. However, it should be noted that greater than 20 % of the individual in this study disagreed with this view that women should eat less and weigh less. This has been clearly illustrated in the histograms in Figure 1 below. The genders are clustered together with column height representing the feedback from each view. Figure 1: Histogram of opinions of 15 males and 15 females on whether women should weigh less and eat less. In the questionnaire section seeking to investigate whether men should weigh more and eat more, than of 4/5 of the women interviewed were not sure representing a 46.7% of women interviewed whereas a relatively high number of men (not sure =33.3%) were also not undecided. This is clearly illustrated in the Table 2 below. This view is of concern since when compared to the previous opinion on women there were a few individuals that were undecided (26.7%) in comparison to a 40 % undecided on whether men should eat more and weigh more. Therefore in this community, we assume that, issues concerning men and their eating tendencies appear not to bother a significant majority of the population as compared to issues on weight and eating habiting concerning women. Table 2: Cross tabulation; men weigh more and eat more Gender * Men should weigh more and eat more Cross tabulation Men should weigh more and eat more Total Strongly disagree Disagree Not sure Agree Strongly agree Gender Male Count 2 3 5 4 1 15 % within Gender 13.3% 20.0% 33.3% 26.7% 6.7% 100.0% Female Count 2 0 7 4 2 15 % within Gender 13.3% .0% 46.7% 26.7% 13.3% 100.0% Total Count 4 3 12 8 3 30 % within Gender 13.3% 10.0% 40.0% 26.7% 10.0% 100.0% Further graphical representation of the distribution of the reposes from the sample is made in Figure 2 below. Figure 2: Histogram of opinions of 15 males and 15 females on whether men should weigh more and eat more. The questionnaire also sought to enquire on the food preferences of the sample group. In the results, around 80% of the male respondents preferred a variety of food and also a high number of female respondents preferred vegetables and fruits (Table 3). Table 3: Statement that best describes food preferences. Gender * choose a statement that best describes your usual food preferences Cross tabulation choose a statement that best describes your usual food preferences Total I prefer a variety of foods to eat I prefer meat, fish, and poultry I prefer fruits and vegetables Gender Male Count 12 2 1 15 % within Gender 80.0% 13.3% 6.7% 100.0% Female Count 5 1 9 15 % within Gender 33.3% 6.7% 60.0% 100.0% Total Count 17 3 10 30 % within Gender 56.7% 10.0% 33.3% 100.0% This sharp contrast is illustrated in the histogram below (Figure 3) where a significantly low proportion of the sampled population showing a preference for meat, fish and poultry. Figure 3: Statement that best describes food preferences In the case where the cafeteria offered vegetable dishes alone, many of the respondents in both genders were of the view that they would pick from among the vegetables dishes as their meal (men = 8, women = 9). A significant high population of men as compared to women would prefer choosing from the limited choices of meat/poultry/fish as their meal whereas a significant number of women in the sample population preferred sweet snacks if vegetables were offered as the main meal in the cafeteria (see Figure 4). Figure 4: food preferred if the cafeteria offers mostly vegetable dishes This study also investigated the preference of the sample population in the case where meat, poultry and fish were offered as the meal of the day in the cafeteria and what would be their choices. An equal number (5 in each category) of women preferred taking snacks and vegetables dishes to having a meal of meat, poultry or fish. A significantly high number of men (7 men) preferred to have a meat, poultry or fish if that was the only meal of the day. None of the men was of the view that he could choose another cafeteria if that was the only meal of the day as opposed to a section of women (7 women) who would rather eat somewhere else if meat, poultry was all the cafeteria would offer (see Figure 5). Figure 5: Food preferred if the cafeteria offered meat/poultry/fish for the day The hypothesis test: The first instance of the graph shows that men are more likely to choose from the meaty foods as opposed to women. The figure which is pointed out in this case is that which shows that more men are likely to choose poultry, meat and fish in comparison to women. The figure in this case is 7 in comparison to 3. The second instance shows that almost the same number of individuals chooses vegetables. The figure for men is 6 in comparison to 5 for women. Five women prefer snacks in comparison to two men. The last instance of the graphs shows that men are rather contented to eat at the cafeteria in comparison to women. The results which are portrayed by this graph above are well in line to prove the first hypothesis which was developed in this same case. Discussion Out of the individuals who were involved, a total of 13 held the opinion that women ought to weigh less and for that matter eat less. This was a representation of 43.4 per cent. 20 per cent of the participants were not in agreement with the view that women should eat less and weigh more. The number of individuals who were not sure was also quite high. In the case of men it was 33.3 per cent and in the case of women the figure stood at 46.7 per cent. Also from the questionnaire, it was established that men prefer a variety of food. The figure representing this was 80 per cent. Similarly, a significant number of women preferred fruits and vegetables. These results which were established pointed out the main ideas in the theses. The study clearly pointed out that there are a lot of variations with regards to the eating habits of men and women and the food they eat. One of the main reasons why women are cautious about what they eat is in relation to their body image (Kalodner, 2005). There is also a relationship between the problem of eating disorder and the image which people have of themselves (Kalodner, 2005). In quite a number of instances, it is the lack of getting pleased a person has with their weight, which will trigger them to engage in certain eating activities for the purpose of enhancing this body image. A young woman, for example, may opt to engage in weight loss programs with the intention of enhancing her weight. After this is done, the person in question will tend to feel good about the new look they have possessed (Fairburn et al., 2007). The mostly taken course of action is to engage in excessive exercise of restrictive eating for that matter. The perception, which people have when it comes to their body weight, is instrumental in some of the things that will affect their well-being. Critical among these is the self-esteem possessed. There are body changes, which are exhibited by individuals. These changes are especially exhibited from the age of around 11 years through to around 21 years (Levy, 2002). It is during such times that a person ought to be more cautious with the weight and the food which is consumed. This is because some of the physical attributes which may be adapted at this stage may end up sticking with the individual all their life. Parents are supposed to guide such individuals during such times for the purpose of developing a robust self-esteem and an image which is lovable. The societal perceptions should also be made clear to the children during such times. This will make sure the children grow up knowing how to appreciate themselves and with possession of a better understanding of themselves. In relation to the study which has been conducted, there may be some limitations when examining the findings therein. For starters, the study was not all inclusive. Instead, it only focused on the individuals who are at the university level. Other significant demographics were left out. In this case, those were the individuals who are above the age of 30 years. It is also worth recognizing the fact that these individuals may also exhibit different eating habits in relation to the individuals who were engaged in the research. As a result of this limitation, the findings which were established from the research were not all conclusive since certain elements of the population were left out. Still sticking to the findings, it is worth noting that the individuals who were used are in the age gap which will tend to choose what they eat time and again. This is as opposed to older individuals who might as well just take in anything. The implication of this is that in future more individuals are to be incorporated in such studies for the purpose of coming up with conclusions which are rather accurate in comparison to what has been established from this research conducted. However, since the design is time-bound and provides merely snapshots of the study, it cannot be used to establish a general cause and effect relationship and there is always the possibility of coming up with a different result when done at a different time (Burns and Bush, 2010). Although an inexpensive and easy way to acquire participants, this method will not provide the researcher with a representative sample population (Burns and Bush, 2010). Conclusion The study which has been pointed out clearly shows that the age of individuals may have a significant influence on the person’s choice of the food he or she eats. This is notwithstanding the fact that there are other elements which come into play. In this case the body image is in perspective. This may be the reason why the people of the female gender are more cautious with regard to the types of food which they consume in comparison to their male counterparts. The conclusion which can be reached in this case is well in relation to the goals of the study. The results which were established well point out the factors which are highlighted by the hypotheses. References Ajzen, I., 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, pp. 179-211. Burns, A. C. and Bush, R. F., 2010. Marketing research. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall. Caine-Bish, N. A. L. and Scheule, B. A., 2009. Gender differences in food preferences of school-aged children and adolescents. The Journal of School Health, 79, pp. 532-540. Delinsky, S. S., Latner, J. D. and Wilson, G. T., 2006. Binge eating and weight loss in a self-help behavior modification program. Obesity. Silver Spring, Md. Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C. and Morton, L. C., 2012. Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. Etienne, B., 2003. The many faces of perfectionism. The need for perfection comes in different flavors, each associated with its own set of problems, researchers say. Monitor Staff, 34. Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Bohn, K., O’Connor, M.E., Doll, H.A. and Palmer, R.L., 2007. The severity and status of eating disorder NOS: implications for DSM-V. Behaviour Research and Therapy. Halmi CA, Agras WS, Crow S, Mitchell J, Wilson GT, Bryson S, Kraemer HC. (2005). Predictors of treatment acceptance and completion in anorexia nervosa: implications for future study designs. Archives of General Psychiatry, Kalodner, Cynthia (2003).Too fat or too thin?A Reference Guide to Eating Disorders. Greenwood Levy, Patrick (2002)."Eating disorders: a review of the literature with emphasis on medical complications and clinical nutrition". Alternative medicine review: a journal of clinical therapeutic Lam, V., & Leman, P. (2009). Children's Gender- and Ethnicity-based Reasoning about Foods.Social Development.18, 478-496. Levi A., Chan, K. K., & Pence, D. (2006). Real Men Do Not Read Labels: The Effects of Masculinity and Involvement on College Students' Food Decisions. Journal of American College Health.55, 91-98. Pirouznia, M. (2001). The association between nutrition knowledge and eating behavior in male and female adolescents in the US. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition.52, 127-132. Pliner P., Remick A.K., &RizviS. (2009). Competition affects food choice in women. International Journal of Eating Disorders.42, 557-564. Rozin, P., Bauer, R., &Catanese, D. (2003). Food and life, pleasure and worry, among American college students: Gender differences and regional similarities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.85, 132-141. Shannon C, Story M, Fulkerson JA, & French SA. (2002). Factors in the school cafeteria influencing food choices by high school students. The Journal of School Health.72, 229-34. Vagstrand K, Barkeling B, Forslund HB, Elfhag K, Linne Y, Rossner S,&Lindroos AK. (2007). Eating habits in relation to body fatness and gender in adolescents--results from the 'SWEDES' study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition.61, 517-25. Wardle, J., Haase, A., Steptoe, A., Nillapun, M., Jonwutiwes, K., & Bellisie, F. (2004).Gender differences in food choice: The contribution of health beliefs and dieting.Annals of Behavioral Medicine.27, 107-116. Appendices Appendix 1: Questionnaire on Male and Female Eating Habits and Food Choices The following questions ask about some non-identifiable personal information and eating habits. The information you will provide will help in understanding any differences in food choices between males and females, which is a part of my research study for a Social Health Sciences course. Your participation in this survey is both voluntary and anonymous. I request you not to put any identifying marks/information on the survey form in order to maintain your anonymity. I would appreciate your help in my research. Thank you in advance! Please put a check mark on the space provided before your best choice/answer. 1 I am a: [ ] Male [ ] Female 2 How old are you? [ ] 18-21 years old [ ] 22-25 years old [ ] 26-30 years old 3 Ethnicity: [ ] Caucasian [ ] African [ ] Asian [ ] Middle Eastern [ ] Latino [ ] Others 4-8 Body Image: (please circle one number for each statement) Strongly disagree Strongly agree I feel overweight. 1 2 3 4 5 I feel that I have an ideal body weight. 1 2 3 4 5 Women should weigh less and eat less. 1 2 3 4 5 Men should weigh more and eat more. 1 2 3 4 5 I get more worried about my weight than the nutritional value of the food that I eat. 1 2 3 4 5 9 Please choose a statement that best describes your daily meal schedule. [ ] I eat 2-3 full meals and some snacks in between. [ ] I only eat when I am hungry. [ ] I do not have a regular meal schedule. [ ] I often skip meals. 10 Please choose a statement that best describes your usual food preferences. [ ] I prefer a variety of foods to eat. [ ] I prefer meat, fish, and poultry. [ ] I prefer fruits and vegetables. 11 If the cafeteria offers mostly vegetable dishes for the day, you would: [ ] Choose from among the vegetable dishes. [ ] Opt to choose from the limited choices of meat/poultry/fish. [ ] Prefer to have a sweet snack. [ ] Prefer to eat somewhere else. 12 If the cafeteria offers mostly meat/poultry/fish for the day, you would: [ ] Choose from among the meat/poultry/fish. [ ] Opt to choose from the limited choices of vegetable dishes. [ ] Prefer to have a sweet snack. [ ] Prefer to eat somewhere else. 13 Please choose a statement that best describes your choice to eat in the university cafeteria. [ ] I choose food here for their variety of meat, vegetables, and sweets. [ ] I choose food here for their meat/poultry/fish offerings. [ ] I choose food here for their vegetables dishes. [ ] I choose food here for the sweet snacks. 14 Please choose a statement that best describes you. [ ] When I feel good about something I did, I eat chocolates and other sweets. [ ] When I feel good about something I did, I eat full course meals (appetizer, main course, and dessert). [ ] When I feel good about something I did, I eat only vegetables and fruits. 15 Please choose a statement that best describes you. [ ] I eat chocolates and other sweets because it makes me feel good. [ ] I eat full course meals (appetizer, main course, and dessert) because it makes me feel good. [ ] I eat only vegetables and fruits because it makes me feel good. Thank you very much for your valuable participation and time! Your input is of great help to my research. Read More