Unique Medicinal Mushroom: Fungi - Research Paper Example

Unique Medicinal Mushroom: Fungi Fungi are a group of organisms that exhibits some characteristics of plants and animals. Although many of them look like plants, they don’t have roots, stems, and leaves as complex as the plants and lack chlorophyll which means they cannot make their own food by photosynthesis. However, like animals they depend on outside source for food. There are more than 100,000 species of fungi (Access Science). Some of these fungi are saprotrophs i.e., they secrete enzymes onto the dead or decaying matter to digest them externally and then absorb the resulting small food particles. Some fungi are mutualistic wherein it is involved in a mutually beneficial association with another organism or plant. There are other fungi that are parasitic in nature. Fungi are eukaryotic in nature i.e., their DNA is enclosed inside a nucleus (Microbe World). Fungi differ considerably in their structures. They range in size from a single-celled organism like yeast to a 3.5 mile wide multi-cellular mushroom which is the largest known living organism on Earth (Microbe World). Some fungi have proved to be very useful to human beings. There are nearly 200 species of edible fungi (Tutor Next). Some of the common ones are mushrooms like Agaricus campestris and Agaricus bisporus, puff balls like Lycoperdon, morels like Morchella esculenta, khumb like Podaxon and truffles (Tutor Next). These fungi are rich in vegetable proteins and vitamins and are delicious in taste. Certain fungi help in breaking down complex organic compounds of dead plants and animals resulting in their decay. In this process, they return mineral salts to the earth which plants need and clean up the environment. Some fungi have been used to develop medicines like antibiotics to fight various types of diseases. Fungi have also helped in the development of medicines to treat diseases like cancer, arthritis, diabetes and scientists around the world have been testing and developing new drugs from fungal sources. Some fungi cause diseases and can be extremely harmful. One of the most famous fungi is Phytophthora infestans which caused the great potato famine in Ireland during the mid 1800s and resulted in a million deaths (Encyclopedia Britannica). Fungi are also responsible for the destruction of about a quarter to half of harvested fruits and vegetables annually. Certain species of fungi are toxic and can cause mild to moderate poisoning. However, there are a few species, which if ingested, can be extremely poisonous. Mushroom poisoning is mostly accidental and the result of a mix-up between edible and toxic fungi. Some people intentionally ingest psychotropic mushrooms which can have drastic consequences. The most serious poisonings are caused by cytotoxic agents like amatoxins which are found in Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa, Amanita verna and in some Galerina and Lepiota species (Persson 635). The amatoxins in these mushrooms target the liver and causes intense gastrointestinal symptoms with severe watery diarrhea. Impaired kidney function can also be seen because of dehydration and shock. Orellanine is a potent nephrotoxin found in fungus like Cortinarius orellanus and Cortinarius speciosissimus (Persson 635). The nephrotoxins in this species target the kidney and can result in organ failure. Treatment may help to restore partial renal function end-stage renal failure is reported in about 10–40% of the cases (Persson 635). Psilocybin is a hallucinogen found in mushrooms like Psilocybe and Panaeolus species. These mushrooms are usually ingested intentionally for their hallucinogenic effects. They have been known to be used by early cultures in a variety of socio-cultural and ritual contexts. These mushrooms are known to alter the sense of time and space and cause depersonalization, hallucinations, de-realization and euphoria (Nichols 131). Effects of this drug disappear within 4–6 hours but ‘flashbacks’ may recur after weeks or months. This paper will discuss the importance of fungi in the field of medicine and discuss some of the new and exciting discoveries involving fungi in the world of medicine. Importance of Fungi in the World of Medicine Fungi have shown promising results in the field of medicine. They have been used to develop antibiotics to inhibit or reduce the growth of certain microorganisms. These antibiotics are developed from natural compounds that fungi produce and compete against disease causing bacteria for nutrients and space. Penicillin is one of the most famous antibiotics, which was derived from a mould called Penicillium notatum and Penicillium chrysogenum by Alexander Fleming (About.com). Penicillin can be used to treat pneumonia, rheumatic fever, tonsillitis, diphtheria, tetanus and many other diseases caused by gram positive bacteria. Cyclosporin is another drug derived from a fungus that uses insects as its host (Tutor Next). Cyclosporin has resulted in rapid advancement in the field of organ transplant because it suppresses the immune system of transplant patients thereby lowering tissue rejection rates (Tutor Next). Many transplant operations that were not possible due to tissue rejection have become routine today because of this drug. Other drugs like Clavicin derived from Aspergillus clavatus is used to treat fungal diseases and Jawaharenece derived from Aspergillus species is used to treat small pox, influenza and leukoderma (Tutor Next). The top five best-selling antibiotics in the world have been produced from fungi (Tutor Next). Without these antibiotics our life-expectancy would be much lower. Fungi have also been identified as a rich source of many vitamins. The fruit body of a mushroom is an excellent source of B-complex vitamins including riboflavin (B2) niacin, pantothenic acid, thiamin (B1) biotin, folate and vitamin B12 (Ingram). Mushrooms are a particularly rich source of riboflavin. One portabella mushroom takes care of nearly one-third our recommended daily allowances requirement and a serving of white or crimini mushrooms supplies one-quarter of our daily requirement (Ingram). Scientists have found that ergocalciferol in mushrooms can increase serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations as effectively as vitamin D supplements. Therefore, mushrooms can be safely recommended as a natural source of vitamin D (Outila et al. 95-98). Some mushrooms like shiitake contain a precursor of vitamin D which can be converted to vitamin D in the presence of sunlight (Outila et al. 95-98). Mushrooms have proved to be a valuable source of nutrition since they have high protein value comparable to meat and also contribute to the supply of vitamins and minerals in the diet. Several plant parasitic fungi like ergot of rye (Claviceps purpuree) and ergot of bajra (Claviceps microcephala) have been used for medicinal purposes (Tutor Next). Ergot has been known to stimulate muscles of uterus and has been used as an abortifacient to assist in child birth (Tutor Next). It is also used to increase blood pressure and control uterine hemorrhage. With the immense potential that fungi offers in the field of medicine, pharmaceutical companies are becoming increasingly interested in investigating these traditional remedies to develop cures for some of the major diseases of the present times. Biopharmaceuticals are valued at $41 billion in the global market and has been steadily growing at a rate of 21% over the past five years (Pharmaceutical PR News). With new and exciting discoveries made in this field each year, the total pharmaceutical market has been projected to reach $100 billion by the end of the decade. Fungus derived drugs used world-wide earn huge revenues – for e.g., Cyclosporin is known to earn $1.4 billion and Amoxicillin earns about $1.7 billion (Pharmaceutical PR News). History of Medicinal Fungi Fungi have been used for medicinal purposes for many centuries. The Greeks and Romans have been known to use some wood rotting fungi for their medicinal properties. Laricifomes officinalis, which have agaricin as the active agent was used to treat liver complaints, asthma, jaundice, dysentery, stomach pain, pain in joints and to stop bleeding from bites (Vaidya & Rabba 131). Inonotus obIiquus is another wood rotting fungi that was used for its anti-carcinogenic properties. Amylosporus campbellii was used against worms while Daedaleopsis flavida was used to reduce bilirubin and bilivirdin for jaundice (Vaidya & Rabba 131). They also used Phellinus gilvus to treat kidney disorders. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of a common puff ball called Bovista nigrescens that can be traced back to the Roman era (Vaidya & Rabba 131). It is thought that Roman soldiers used this fungus to stop blood-flow from battle wounds – which is a known effective use. Ergot is another fungus which has been used during the Roman period as an agent to advance labor in childbirth. Fungi, including the yeasts, have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years. Fungi like Auricularia have been used for its antitumor, cardiovascular and hypo-cholesterolemia, antiviral, antibacterial and anti-parasitic effects (Bonell). Chinese medicine also use Cordyceps chinensis to regulate and support the gonads, as a lung and kidney tonic and as a tonic for all illness because of its claimed effects to improve energy, appetite, stamina, endurance and sleeping patterns (Bonell). One tribe in Thailand has been known to use ground bracket fungi as part of a lotion for very sick children. In India, medicinal mushrooms like Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus florida and Pleurotus pulmonaris have been found to have immense antioxidant and antitumor properties. Studies have revealed that these mushrooms have significant antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic properties (Ajith & Janardhanan 157). Ganoderma lucidum and related species have been used for their medicinal purposes for over four thousand years. In Japan, this mushroom is called Reishi and in China and Korea it is called Ling Chu and Ling Zhi respectively. Traditionally, this mushroom has been used in the treatment of hepatopathy, chronic hepatitis, nephritis, hypertension, arthritis, insomnia, bronchitis, asthma and gastric ulcer (Ajith & Janardhanan 157). Scientific studies have confirmed that certain extracts from this mushroom help in reducing blood pressure, blood cholesterol and blood sugar levels as well as helps in stopping platelet aggregation. Pleurotus species of mushrooms also have been identified to have high medicinal value. Compounds extracted from these mushrooms have been found to help in treating chronic diseases like hypertension and hypercholesterolemia (Ajith & Janardhanan 157). The awareness of the medicinal properties of this mushroom came not only from Asia but from the folklore of central Europe, South America and Africa New Discoveries Involving Fungi in Medicine Selenium Found Helpful to Treat Prostrate Cancer In a study conducted in 1996, skin cancer patients were given selenium to see if it would prevent recurrence of the disease. Although the results showed that it had no effect on skin cancer, researchers found that it significantly reduced prostate cancer by more than 60 percent. Portabellas and white mushrooms have been found to be rich in selenium. One serving of crimini mushrooms provides nearly one-third the RDA for selenium (Mushroom Info). Based on this finding, researches of the study have concluded that if mushrooms form an integral part of the diet, it can help lower the risk of prostate cancer. Findings from the Longitudinal Study on Aging conducted in Baltimore found that men with the lowest blood selenium levels were four to five times more likely to have prostate cancer than those with the highest selenium levels (Daniel 2034-2038). The study also found that the level of blood selenium appears to decrease with age. Hence, it was suggested that older men should add more selenium to their diets. Hallucinogens Affecting Brain Function In vivo brain imaging technologies and other tools available in neuroscience has made incredible revelations about hallucinogens. Scientists do not see them as “magic” drugs anymore but rather as 5-HT2A receptor-specific molecules that affect membrane potentials, neuronal firing frequencies, and neurotransmitter release in specific areas of the brain (Nichols 168). Based on the findings, one can hypothesize how cellular changes can transform our perceptions of reality and produce altered states of consciousness. The substrates in the brain that are affected by hallucinogenic drugs play vital role in determining who we are in relationship to the rest of the world. Scientists believe that hallucinogens that stimulate the 5-HT2A receptors in the brain modify the membrane currents and neuronal firing frequencies thereby modifying the brain circuits in predictable ways (Nichols 168). This can be used as a tool to understand how mind originates from brain states. However since hallucinogens are considered dangerous drugs of abuse, it has restricted the use of this drug as a key to understand the nature of consciousness and the human mind. Scientists like Franz Vollenweider and his colleagues have combined psychological assessments with in vivo brain imaging as a tool to study the correlation between alterations in mood and thinking with brain function (Nichols 168). In a recent discovery, hallucinogens have been found to have dramatic effects on binocular rivalry and motion induced blindness promising further insight into other cognitive processes (Carter & Pettigrew 295 -305). Scientists are also exploring the medical value of hallucinogens in OCD and terminal patients though clinical trials. However, further research is needed to understand how hallucinogens affect brain function, how those changes alter perception and cognition, and if indeed these ancient healing substances have medical value that can be tapped into. New Studies on Fungi as a Cure for Diseases Genetically Engineered Fungus Could Fight Malaria Dr. Fang and his team from the University of Maryland have revealed that a genetically modified fungus, carrying genes for the human anti-malarial antibody or a scorpion anti-malarial toxin, can be a highly effective and environmentally friendly tool to fight malaria. This finding has come at a time when the effectiveness of current pesticides against malaria causing mosquitoes is declining. In this study, scientists created the transgenic anti-malarial fungus, by inserting the genes for a human anti-malarial antibody or a scorpion anti-malarial toxin into a fungus called Metarhizium anisopliae which is known to naturally attack mosquitoes (Fang 1074-1077). Both the human antibody and the scorpion toxin specifically target the malaria-causing parasite P. falciparum. The scientists then compared three separate groups of mosquitoes which were infected with the malaria causing parasite. The first group of mosquitoes was sprayed with the transgenic fungus, the second group of mosquitoes was sprayed with the natural strain of the fungus and the third group of mosquitoes was not sprayed with any fungus. The results showed that spraying the mosquitoes with the transgenic fungus reduced the transmission of malaria from mosquitoes to humans by at least five times (Fang 1074-1077). P. falciparum was found in the salivary glands of only 25 percent of the mosquitoes sprayed with the transgenic fungi. However, the parasite was found in 87 percent of the mosquitoes that were sprayed with the natural strain of the fungus and in 94 percent of the mosquitoes that were not sprayed. In the first group where 25 percent of mosquitoes still had parasites, the number of parasites was reduced by more than 95 percent compared to the second group where mosquitoes were sprayed with the natural strain of the fungus. Dr. Fang said that, “the transgenic fungal approach is a very flexible one that allows design and delivery of gene products targeted to almost any disease-carrying arthropod” thereby suggesting that this general approach could be used for controlling other devastating insect borne diseases like dengue fever and Lyme disease (Science Daily 1). Oral Angiogenesis Therapy for Cancer Dr. Judah Folkman was known for his revolutionary idea of angiogenesis therapy in which tumors are starved by preventing them from growing blood supplies. His team which has been working to perfect a drug called Lodamin, an angiogenesis inhibitor, has now developed a formulation which works as a pill without side-effects. The drug was originally isolated from a fungus called Aspergillus fumigatus fresenius by Dr. Donald Ingber from Harvard, who discovered the fungus by accident when he was trying to grow endothelial cells (Technology Review). On closer examination, it was found that the mold prevented the growth of tiny blood vessels known as capillaries in the endothelial cells. Ingber and Folkman developed TNP-470 which was the precursor to the drug Lodamin (Technology Review). TNP-470 when administered orally in mice was found to first reach the liver making it efficient in preventing the development of liver metastasis, a disease often associated with poor prognosis and survival rate. Tests in mice also revealed that it worked against a range of tumors like breast cancer, neuroblastoma, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, brain tumors and uterine tumors (Technology Review). The liver and spleen of the mice in the treated group were almost clean compared to the control group which had fluid in the abdominal cavity and enlarged livers covered with tumors. The side-effects of TNP-470 were depression and dizziness. It was also found that the drug did not stay in the body for long thereby requiring constant infusions. After many unsuccessful trials to improve the drug, Ofra Benny, one of Folkman’s assistant researcher, applied nanotechnology. She attached two “pom-pom” shaped polymers to TNP-470 to protect it from stomach acid. In mice, the altered drug (now named Lodamin) went straight to tumor cells and helped suppress melanoma and lung cancer without any apparent side effects (Technology Review). Scientists believe that Lodamin may also be useful in treating other diseases characterized by abnormal blood vessel growth like age-related macular degeneration. Himalayan Fungus May Cure Multiple Sclerosis The Himalayan fungus called Cordyceps sinesis has been used in traditional herbal medicine in China as an immune suppressing agent. In China and Japan, this fungus is known as “winter insect, summer plant,” because it invades insect larva during winter and grows out of the host by summer. Tetsuro Fujita, researcher at the Kyoto University realized that this fungus must be suppressing the immune system of the insect on which it grows (The Japan Times). It took Fujita three years to modify the insoluble toxic compound called myriocin in Cordyceps sinesis into a usable form. His research has helped in the development of a new drug called Gilenya for treatment of multiple sclerosis, a debilitating disease that affects more than 2 million people worldwide. Unlike the current medication for multiple sclerosis which requires injection therapy, Gilenva is taken orally. The drug has received approval in the US and began sale in October 2010. It is expected to be approved in Europe within 3 months (The Japan Times). Fujita said he was inspired by the discovery of ciclosporin which was also derived from a fungus. This motivated him to research how the immune system may be subdued in transplant patients for which he closely examined the fungus Cordyceps sinesis. He confesses that he was unaware that the immune-modulating properties of the fungus could also be used to help patients suffering from multiple sclerosis. Ongoing Studies on Medicinal Uses of Fungi Island Fungus May Provide Cure for Tuberous Sclerosis A drug isolated from a fungus found on Easter Island is offering new hope to thousands of people who suffer from tuberous sclerosis, a genetic disease that makes tumors grow throughout the body (The Telegraph). This disease is known to affect one in 7,000 babies. Although the tumors are usually benign, it can affect one’s health depending on where the tumors grow in the body. If the tumors grow in the kidneys, brain or lungs, it can cause early death. If it grows in the brain, it can lead to epilepsy, attention problems and learning difficulties. Scientists have been able to identify two genes TSC1 and TSC2, which when faulty or missing, causes tuberous sclerosis (The Telegraph). The proteins from these genes help to control cell growth. When these genes are faulty or missing, it leads to uninterrupted cell growth, resulting in the development of tumors. Scientists recently discovered that this disease can be treated by a drug called Rapamycin, which was isolated from a fungus in Easter Island (The Telegraph). Preliminary data from an American trial, and ad hoc use on a patient in Germany suggested that Rapamycin showed promise in stopping the growth of tumor. However, the side effects of the drug are elevated blood cholesterol and fat. Scientists want to first test the drug adults who are mentally competent and have serious manifestations in the kidney and lung. Ann Hunt, the head of research at the Tuberous Sclerosis Association said: “With Rapamycin there is a hope that we have leapt straight to the Holy Grail of an effective treatment for tuberous sclerosis, one which is already used safely in thousands of other patients” (The Telegraph). Ancient Mushroom May Hold the Cure for Diabetes An ancient inedible mushroom called ganoderma lucidum, which has been used as an elixir of immortality by Chinese royalty may have the potential to cure modern day diabetes (Science Daily 2). Scientists at the University of Western Sydney are testing the extra large medicinal fungi to see if it can reduce high blood pressure, glucose and cholesterol. Together with insulin resistance, these conditions cause a metabolic syndrome which is a precursor to type II diabetes. This mushroom has been used for 2,000 years as an elixir of immortality, enhancing vitality and helping to delay ageing. Although this mushroom contains about 200 active chemical compounds, researchers believe that a group called the polysaccharides is the most effective ingredient. Traditional users believe that this mushroom is most potent when taken in combination with another medicinal mushroom called cordyceps sinensis. The researchers will put this theory to the test when they enlist 170 people with metabolic syndrome symptoms for a four-month trial (Science Daily 2). Participants will get either capsules of powdered ganoderma lucidum alone, a combination of the two mushrooms, or a placebo capsule. If this mushroom proves to be effective, it could become the first single treatment for metabolic syndrome. Meeting the Demand for Medicinal Fungi Although the demand for medicinal fungi is increasing, the supply of these fungi is limited due to various factors. These factors include environmental degradation and urbanization and difficulty in gaining access to reach habitats where these fungi grow. This makes Medicinal fungi very expensive. Following are two major breakthroughs made by scientists in India that addresses this very issue: World’s Costliest Fungi Grown in Indian Defence Laboratory The parasitic fungus called Ophiocordyceps sinensis is a highly valued medicinal fungus and grows on insect caterpillar Hepialus armoricanus. It is found in the frigid and arid alpine reaches of the Himalayas including Nepal, China, Tibet and India. This fungus is found to be beneficial in the treatment of climatic age illness, impotence, emission, neurasthemia, rheumatoid, arthritis, cirrhosis and flabby waist and knee (Singh, 2009). Traditionally Ophiocordyceps has been used to treat various diseases like chronic bronchitis, insomnia, hypertension, pneumonia, tuberculosis, pulmonary emphysema, anaemia, night sweat and cough. Being a hormone stimulator, Ophiocordyceps is also used as an important anti-aging medicine. Acquiring this medicinal fungus for medicinal use is very expensive since they are very scarce in nature and collecting the fungus from its natural habitat requires treks up to 45km to the base of glaciers. This fungus would therefore cost about $600 for 10gm in China. The Defence Institute of Bio-Energy Research of India has made a breakthrough by artificially creating the world’s costliest fungi in a petri-dish (Hindustan Times). The institute’s parent body is India’s largest scientific organization - the Defence Research and Development Organization, which has filed a patent for the artificial version of the fungus and transferred the technology to an unnamed private firm for commercial production. As a result of this breakthrough, the fungus will now be more accessible and the cost of acquiring this fungus for medicinal use will also become cheaper. Cultivation of Shiitake Mushroom: the Costliest Mushroom in the World The Shiitake mushroom is the costliest mushroom in the world and has great medicinal value. Until recently it was available mostly in Japan and China. However, in August 2003, Dr Arun Arya from MS University in India became the first man in India to cultivate Shiitake in controlled conditions at the university’s laboratory (The Times of India). A professor with the Botany Department, Arya cultivated Shiitake using the Synthetic Log Technique in 170 days. Researchers in China and Japan have proved that extracts of Shiitake are effective against viruses that cause Hepatitis B, AIDS and cancerous cells. According to research at Tokyo’s National Cancer Center Research Institute, a polysaccharide compound taken from Shiitake which they named as Lentinan helped to reduce tumors in mice by 80 to 100 per cent (The Times of India). Another study conducted by Hobbs in 1995, using a composition prepared from the mycelium of Shiitake, has revealed that the composition is more effective in restricting the progress of HIV virus in cells than the famous drug AZT. The Synthetic Log Technique or the Plastic Bag Technique of cultivating Shiitake, as used by Dr Arya, is simple and cost-effective. Shiitake was cultivated by inculcating Lentinus edodes, a white rod wood decay fungus, into saw dust of hard wood trees like Tectona Grandis, Acacia arabica or Terminalia catappa (The Times of India). The mushroom was inculcated by adding sawdust, pearl millet grams and yeast and was supplemented with potato dextrose agar to maintain the stock culture. This was then kept in a polyethene bag for 150 days. In order to reduce the content of carbon-dioxide, the product was kept at a temperature below 15 degrees centigrade with 80 per cent humidity for another 20 days. The first crop of Shiitake mushroom was obtained after 170 days. Cultivation of Shiitake by natural means has been found to take anywhere from 6 months to two years. The Synthetic Log Technique can effectively reduce this timeframe and can be used to cultivate the mushroom throughout the year. Artificial culture of Shiitake will also reduce the cost of production resulting in lowering of the market price. Antifungal Drug Resistance: A Growing Issue Although medicinal fungi have helped significantly in the field of medicine, there is one area that is drawing a lot of concern - the increase in anti fungal drug resistance. According to recent studies, fungal infections have been found to affect nearly 10% of renal transplant recipients, 30% of heart transplant recipients, 35 % of heart-lung and lung transplant recipients and 40 % of liver transplant recipients (Chamilos & Kontoyiannis 344- 358). Most of these infections have been found to occur between one and six months after the organ transplant when the level of immunosuppressants is still high in the patients. When rejection occurs, the normal protocol is to intensify the treatment which would further increase the likelihood of infection in the recipients. Over the past 30 years, there has been significant improvement in the management of medical and surgical patients having debilitating diseases or conditions. However, this has also led to an unwanted increase in the number of life-threatening fungal infections especially among patients suffering form cancer, AIDS and transplant recipients (Chamilos & Kontoyiannis 344- 358). Since many times fungal infections go undiagnosed, the present estimates of the incidence of these infections are thought to be conservative. Although there have been significant improvements in the methods of diagnosis and new drugs have been developed to address the issue, there is continuing trend of harmless moulds being implicated as the cause of serious or lethal infection in immunosuppressed individuals. Summary The field of medicinal fungi has proved to be very promising with new and exciting discoveries being made every year. The medicinal effects of a number of fungi are now widely accepted. However, more clinical work must be done before fungi-derived compounds can be accepted for treatment of diseases. Studies presented in this paper reveal that the use of medicinal fungi is slowly gaining ground and offers great potential in the field of medicine. However, each step of advancement in this field needs to be made with caution since fungi are increasingly becoming resistant to drugs. Works Cited About.com. The History of Penicillin. 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