The Relationship between Vegetarianism and Cancer - Essay Example

? NUTRITION, DISEASE, AND PUBLIC HEALTH By Nutrition, Disease, and Public Health Introduction Past and recent studies on the relationship between vegetarianism and cancer provide findings that affirm or deny the proposition on the existence causal links between nutrition and the incidence of cancer. A growing interest in the study of the relationship between the two variables is because cancer remains one of the leading killer diseases in the world with studies pointing to lifestyle as a major factor. Studies by Kay et al (2009), Kushi et al (2012), and McEvoy, Temple, and Woodside, (2012) focused on the risk of cancer on groups and individuals with regard to dietary patterns. Although they appeared to agree on the importance of vegetarian diet on the individuals and groups, these studies also pointed out certain deficiencies of strict vegetarianism in light of its efficacy to promote health and lessen the incidence of cancer. Similar findings were also contained in the results from studies conducted by Marsh, Zeuschner, and Saunders, (2012) and Benetou (2008). However, some of the studies such as Benetou (2008) found out that there were no statistically significant associations between a vegetarian diet and the risk of cancer. Studies seeking to determine the precise links between vegetarianism and the risk of cancer have encountered shortcomings of controls and lack of experimental data linking specific nutrients to the risk of cancer (Rose, 2008, p. 41; Mangels, Messina, & Messina, 2011, 60). As such, many of these studies remain observational studies, which expose them to higher degrees of error of inaccuracies. Other challenges associated with these studies are that they are no optimum quantities of diet portions that could be used as standards in determining trends and outcomes between the practice of a particular diet and the risk associated with cancer. Despite such shortcomings, various studies have endeavored to explore the relationship between plant-based diets and the risk of cancer. The findings of these studies have been used to build on, or contest against some theories and propositions that associate forms of diet with the risk of cancer. Vegetarianism and types of cancers A study conducted by Kay et al (2009) found out that the risk of certain cancers was lesser in individuals who practiced different kinds of vegetarianism. According to the study, the risk of such cancers as stomach cancer, ovarian cancer, bladder cancer, and blood cancer was lesser among vegetarians as compared to non-vegetarians. The study also associated meat eaters with a higher incidence of malignant cancer as compared to vegetarians or individuals who ate fish. Some findings did not show the existence of any difference in meat and fish as the possible causes of cancer within the population. This study involved 61, 566 participants sourced from across the United Kingdom. As such, it might be argued that it was sufficiently representative of the British population, and therefore consistent with the patterns of health and nutrition as observed within the British society. The study was longitudinal in nature as it was conducted between the year 1980 and 1984. A five-year period was is significant enough to provide credible findings on the relationship between cancer and nutrition. Another notable feature of the study is that it incorporated a range of other lifestyle health issues such as smoking and alcohol consumption. In this manner, the study was able to obtain a comprehensive picture regarding other possible causative agents of cancer. In terms of statistics, the findings showed that vegetarians have a 45 % lesser chance of suffering from blood cancers as compared to non-vegetarians. The study also found out that vegetarians had a 12 % lesser risk of suffering from any other type of cancer as compared to non-vegetarians. The merits of this study might be determined from the fact that the findings are consistent with other studies that have focused on diet and nutrition as a possible cause of cancer and other lifestyle diseases that afflict the modern societies. One of the limitations of this study was that sampled population reported a low incidence of the various types of cancer. This means that the results obtained could not be used to affirm the existence of a significant causal relationship between cancer and nutrition. Consumption of Fruits and Vegetables and the Risk of Cancer A separate study conducted by Kushi et al (2012) explored a collection of studies that attempt to prove the fact that the consumption of vegetarian diet reduced the risk of cancer. The study focused on both the supporting and dissenting evidence with a view of providing a balanced assessment of facts relating to the association between cancer and nutrition. One of the findings of this study was that the practice of healthy eating habits and the consumption of fruits and vegetables had a significant impact on reducing the risk of cancer. However, the study cautioned that it was not precisely clear in the establishing of direct points of connection between the different types food and their capacity to increase or lessen the risk of contracting cancer. The examined some past research works that have attempted to link some specific nutrients within fruits and vegetables to a reduction of cancer risk. However, the general findings relating on this focus was that the studies incurred challenges of methodology, which rendered their results inconsistent or incredible. At this level, it becomes necessary to investigate the possible links between the kind of diet consumed by the individuals and their levels of risk as relates to cancer and other health challenges. However, the findings from a range of studies recommended a reduction in the consumption of some animal proteins such as meat and processed meat as one of the ways of reducing the risk of cancer and other lifestyle diseases such as diabetes. The findings of this study mirror other studies that have also associated meat and processed meat with a high incidence in cancer. The level of credibility of the results obtained from this study could be determined from the point of view of methodology, which incorporated a range of different studies that provide different perspectives on the relationship between cancer and nutrition. Some of the studies examined involved controlled experiments involving vegetarian groups and non-vegetarian ones. For instance, the study trained focus on some past findings involving the Seventh Day Adventists due to their religious practices that advocates against the consumption of certain proteins. The study found out that this religious group suffered less from the perils of heart diseases and certain types of cancer as compared to the general population. It was established that the risk of cancer was generally lower among this group because they were more reliant on the vegetarian diet as compared to other groups. Nevertheless Kushi et al (2012) also focused on the dissenting evidence that sought to point at alternative possibilities that could have occasioned the variations in the results obtained from the Seventh-Day Adventists. Some of the alternative explanation regarding the group was that it involved a range of possibilities concerning other kinds of health habits as practiced by the groups. For instance, the Seventh-Day Adventists are also known to avoid to the consumption of alcohol and the smoking of cigarettes. As such, the findings from the experiments did not control for other possible causes of lower levels of risk such as healthy living practices. This would offer varying interpretations of the results obtained because it cannot be wholly attributed to the vegetarian diet. However, it might be argued that the study offered some compelling insights into the linkages between lifestyle, nutrition, and the risk of cancer and other lifestyle diseases. Kushi et al (2012, pp. 30-67) also focused on a different study conducted in 1991, which showed that vegetarianism was not a necessary condition for healthy living and the reduction of the risk of cancer. According to this particular study, individuals and groups could equally lead healthy lifestyles by practicing an omnivorous diet, which features a healthy mix of fruits, vegetables, and animal proteins. The recommendation from this study was that the right balance of foods had a greater positive impact at the level of diet as compared to a strict adherence to a vegetarian lifestyle. On this account, it could be argued that some of the issues involving the relationship between vegetarians and health could be attributed to challenges of diet combination and nutritional practices. The results of this particular study could be understood together with other studies that have argued against the practice of vegetarianism because it denies the adherents some important nutrients that can only be derived from animal proteins. The complex relationship between vegetarianism and health was also obtained from a longitudinal study involving 1000 vegetarians and 700 non-vegetarians (Kushi et al, 2012). The non-vegetarians were selected from a sample of health-conscious population. The study was arranged within a period of 21 years. The results of the study showed that there were no significant variations between the two groups with regard to both mortality and the incidence of diseases. One notable difference in the findings was that the vegetarians had a slightly lower incidence of heart disease as compared to the other groups. Another important conclusion of the study was that vegetarians are largely freer from other elements that attach to cancer risk. On this score, it might be argued that some of the health matters relating to matters of nutrition are reducible to the kind and practice of diet among individuals and groups. The findings showed that vegetarians and health-conscious non-vegetarians lived healthier lifestyles as compared to the general population. These findings could be related to some theories of health and propositions that have sought to relate the increasing incidence of lifestyle diseases with poor nutrition among urban population. Generally, an observable trend in these studies is that they are largely focused on urban populations. A possible implication is that environmental factors play some significant role in the determination of health and risk of cancer among individuals and groups. It is possible to consider the impact of population as an important feature in the determination of trends and influences as it affects groups and individuals in different ways. At this level, some of the issues related to population could be seen in light of the variations in the incidence of cancer across the categories of culture, socio-economic status, and other variables that connect with the causative agents of the disease. As a limitation, the study argues that many research ventures on the impact of vegetarianism on cancer are mainly within the category of observational studies. As such, they do not contain any specifics regarding the impacts of the types of diet on the incidence of cancer. The extent of vegetarian impact on the reduction of cancer, according to these studies, remains unclear due to lack of quantifiable data. It is possible to regard some of the major challenges of health and nutrition in light of lack of empirical studies that would pinpoint at the exact points of difference as relates the incidence and risk of cancer in humans. One strength in the methodology adopted by Kushi et al (2012) is that it combines multiple studies and various designs. This enriches the study by supplying the most relevant issues of concern regarding the many perspectives and viewpoints on the role of cancer and nutrition. Vegetarianism and Low-meat Diet A study conducted by McEvoy, Temple, & Woodside, (2012) examined the epidemiological evidence regarding vegetarianism and low-meat diet in light of their association with the status of health among adults. The design of the study was based primarily on a range of published literature, which focused on studies and analyses on vegetarianism and health outcomes. The choice of the studies was made in a manner that captured the diverse aspects of vegetarianism within across various demographic categories. The information was organized and merged into various themes that responded to the salient concerns of the study. The reliance on multiple studies enabled the study to condense various points in order to generate a comprehensive body of knowledge representing the diversity of scholarly opinion on the relationship between health and vegetarianism. The results of the study showed that vegetarians and non-vegetarians who practice some element of prudence in their diet are more likely to benefit in matters of health as compared to the general population. The two groups, according to the results of the study, were less susceptible to diseases as compared to other groups that fell outside the range of the groups. The study also mentioned that small amounts of red meat are not harmful to the health of non-vegetarians. On this note, the findings of this study mirror the results established by Kushi et al (2012) on the fact that a balanced diet comprising of various nutritional foods is more relevant in enhancing health as compared to strict vegetarianism. The study further observed that the risk of type 2 diabetes and chronic heart disease were significantly reduced between the two groups are compared to the general population. Plant-based diet, according to this study had significant health benefits that included improved immunity, hormonal balance, and other benefits that worked together to improve the capacity of the body to fight diseases. However, like other studies, the findings of the research failed to establish any direct and verifiable association between vegetarianism and lower risks of cancer. This deficiency adds on similar limitations of previous researches, which also failed to establish any direct links between vegetarianism and a reduced risk of cancer. Therefore, the study also falls within the range of observational studies that fail to establish the association between the two variables. It is especially necessary to consider the fact that some of the issues concerned with vegetarianism relate to the capacity of the individuals to maintain a consistent pattern of plant-based diet. Notably, this study brings out the possibility of adverse negative health impacts of vegetarianism on the consumers. However, this remains a common observation by other studies, which also caution against the strict observance of a vegetarian diet for the same reason that it exposes consumers to the risk of malnutrition and other health-related challenges. Plant-based diet lacks nutrients such as iron and calcium. This would imply that individuals and groups that practice a strict form of vegetarianism often expose themselves to multiple health challenges related to lack of important nutrients in the body. Meat and fish, according to the study, are important in supplying the body with specific nutrients that help in the protection of the body against disease and low immunity. Reviewing the findings of this study in light of the place of nutrition in the body could be understood from the perspective of some of some studies that have recommended the use of supplements among vegetarianism. Supplements, according to these studies are necessary for the purpose of filling the nutritional gap left behind by the lack of meat and fish from the diet of vegetarians. The role of supplements is important because they are easily accessible and pose little challenges in terms of digestion. As such, the recommendation of a vegetarian diet must include an awareness of malnutrition that follows the lack of animal proteins from the body. Particularly, nutrients such as Vitamins B12 and Vitamins D can only be derived from animal proteins as opposed to plant-proteins. It is because of such a realization that the study recommends a mixture of diet and nutrition in ways that respond to the multiple requirements of the body. However, the study also acknowledges the medicinal property found in some plant-based diet particularly in its capacity to check against the occurrence of diseases and the strengthening of the body’s natural defenses. This study employed the use of appropriate database for information appertaining to the area of study. The literature search involved the use of Ovid Medline as a reliable database for obtaining relevant information on the study. The study used some specific search words in order to obtain the most relevant information regarding the topic. Some of the search words used in the study was blood pressure, dietary patterns, cholesterol, diabetes, cancer, and body weight. The assumption was that these words could lead to the range of literature that involved the relationship between nutrition and the incidence of cancer. On this matter, the terms were considered as representative of some of the underlying sub-themes within the overall theme of the association between vegetarianism and the risk of cancer. Alternative Perspective Another study conducted by Benetou et al (2008) concluded contested the view that fruits and vegetables were necessarily significant in preventing cancer. This study was based on a population of the Greek component within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and nutrition (EPIC), (Benetou et al, 2008). This group was particularly selected due to the fact that it is a high consumer of vegetables and fruits. The study was also longitudinal in nature in the sense that it was carried within a range of 7.9 years. The study involved 25, 623 participants comprising of 10,582 men and another 15,031 women. The dietary patterns of the respondents were determined through questionnaires, which were administered to the respondents. The analysis of data was conducted through the Cox regression method. One of the strengths of this research is to be found in the fact that it controlled for potential confounders. This aspect of the research was important because it shielded the results from the possibilities of error relating to some other factors such as lifestyle, which feature prominently in the limitations associated with other research works. Therefore, the results of the study can be associated wholly be associated with the relationship between the variables. The results showed some level of an inverse relationship between the incidence of cancer and fruits and vegetables. However, there was some variation regarding the manifestation of the results across the gender divide. It was found out that women reported a statistically significant figure than men in accordance with the results. Therefore, it might be concluded that the impact of fruits and vegetables was more significant among women than men. It remains a matter of argument whether the same results could be replicated in another population that practice a similar kind of lifestyle as the Greek population cohort. The results also showed a higher significance in the inverse relationship across the entire cohort when fruits and vegetables were mixed. These results shed some important light on the kind of diet that impacts on the incidence of cancer. The mixing of the fruits and vegetables appeared to have brought forth some extra health synergies that yielded a positive impact across the population. The realization of the different aspects of nutrients as contained in the different fruits and vegetables is important with regard to determining the kind of diet and its impact across the categories of respondents. Benetou et al 2012 concluded that the study the inverse association between a vegetarian diet and the incidence of cancer was not significant enough to support a firm thesis regarding the role of vegetarianism in reducing the occurrence and incidence of cancer. In some sense, the study appeared to support a loose association between the two variables. The weak association between the variables could be attributed to the fact that the experiment controlled for other confounders that could have impacted on the direction of the findings. Implicitly, this would also imply that the association between the two variables is only stronger in cases where other factors such as the nature of lifestyle emerge to support a positive association. Plant-based Diet and Lifestyle Diseases A study conducted by Marsh, Zeuschner, and Saunders, (2012) showed compelling evidence that a plant-based diet was significant in reducing the incidence of diseases such as obesity, heart disease, some types of cancers, and diabetes. The study also demonstrated evidence from a wide range of literature to support the fact that some level of adherence to a plant-based diet promoted longevity among consumers. These facts tie into the relationship between vegetarianism and a lower risk of cancer as brought out in many other studies that have explored extensively on the relationship. Similarly, this study pointed out the fact that a strict reliance on a vegetarian diet would deny the consumers some basic benefits associated with other nutrients that are to be found in alternative foods. Although much of the focus on Marsh, Zeuschner, and Saunders (2012) appeared to focus primarily on general health, the study provided sufficient details and information to associate the occurrence of cancer with the nature of nutrition among the victims. Cancer is usually considered as part of the lifestyle diseases of the modern society. Its prevalence is often associated with a range of factors including lifestyle, diet, natural causes, genetic factors, and a range of environmental concerns. However, much scholarly effort appears to concentrate around diet as one of the most influential factors that determine the occurrence and incidence of cancer among populations. According to Marsh, Zeuschner and Saunders (2012), much of the effects of the disease are related to poor nutrition. Their argument is that modern lifestyles have promoted the consumption of unhealthy eating habits, which expose individuals and groups to the risk of cancer. The central thesis of their study is that it is possible to lessen or limit the risk of cancer by observing a diet of fruits and vegetables. This perspective is consistent with the view adopted by Kushi et al (2012) and other scholars who have attributed low incidence of cancer in some populations to the presence of oxidants within certain foods and nutrients. As such, it becomes important to consider the fact that some of the causes of cancer are regarded to originate from the components contained within some food substances. These substances are usually considered to be contained in animal proteins such as red meat and fish. This study adopted the position that it is possible to reverse the trends of the risk of cancer by adjusting diet in a manner consistent vegetarianism. The study conducted the impact of diet change among individuals with a view of determining outcomes of vegetarian related diet. One of the distinguishing aspects of the study is that it was able to track changes in the diet among individuals with a view of obtaining the most appropriate responses related to diet and nutrition. These changes involved alterations in the specific food items in order to measure the impact of these changes in individuals across time. However, this method was only suitable in observing the outcome of diseases and conditions related to diseases other than cancer. The methods applied could not provide any definite conclusions regarding the impact of nutrition on the risk of cancer. As such, the methods and designs were not wholly suited to the task of determining the impact of the vegetarianism on cancer. Conclusion The different studies explored appear to be united on some common perspectives regarding the relationship between risk of cancer and vegetarianism. Findings from Kay et al (2009), Kushi et al (2012), and McEvoy, Temple, and Woodside, (2012) appear to support the view that vegetarianism has some impact on lessening the risk of cancer. The findings of Marsh, Zeuschner, and Saunders, (2012) and Benetou et al (2008) are united on the opinion that strict vegetarianism is important but also exposes the adherents to some nutritional shortcomings. The different findings sum up the different perspectives adopted by scholars regarding the association between vegetarianism and the risk of cancer. It might be added that some of the findings are wholly consistent with other studies that suggest a balanced consumption of foods across all categories of nutrition. A common perspective in the various studies is that red meat and fish are important foods due to their nutritional value. Strict vegetarians who avoid these foods usually expose themselves to the risk of disease or malnutrition because they will be deprived of important nutrients such as Vitamins B12 and Vitamins D. These nutrients, according to the evidence from the different studies, can only be found from the different foods that make up a complete diet. It is important to assess the nature of foods from the various perspective of nutrition as explored in the different studies. On this score, some of the recommendations of the study support the inclusion of important supplements in the diet of vegetarians or the adoption of different methods of vegetarianism, which include the use consumption of limited supplies of animal proteins to supplement for the lost nutrients. Another common factor noted in some of the studies is that there is no significant difference between vegetarians and non-vegetarians who practice some health-consciousness are regards the status of health and the risk of cancer. Evidence from the studies supports the proposition that healthy living habits are important safeguards against cancer. The determination of the levels of difference between the various causes of cancer could be analyzed in terms of a factor of lifestyle and personal habits. Generally, smokers and alcoholics on either side of the nutritional divide were regarded as being exposed to higher risks of various forms of cancer as compared to individuals who do not smoke or those who do not drink alcohol. At this level, it might be argued that some of the factors involved in the incidence of cancer among various groups are generally related to matters of lifestyle and other confounders of health. Most of the studies explored featured the limitation of control. They could not control for other factors that could influence the risk of cancer among groups. On this note, it was found out that some of the outcomes explored were primarily related to causes outside the variables on which the study was based. This limitation is similar to others that feature in similar studies that show that most of the studies are largely observational in nature. It is important to consider the fact that the studies explored were based on recent patterns and would therefore be limited in their application on other spaces of time. Other important considerations were the roles played by culture, religion, peer influence, social pressure, and income levels in determining the kind of diet consumed by individuals and groups. Social and environmental forces were found to have an important influence on the type of diet adopted by individuals and groups. As such, the incidence and prevalence of cancer among groups and individuals could be understood together with the nature of external forces and influences that regulate the patterns of diet and nutrition. The outcomes of such influences can be either positive or negative depending on the manner in which they control the eating practices of the individuals in light of the risk of cancer. Works Cited Benetou, V et al 2008, Vegetables and Fruits in Relation to Cancer Risk: Evidence from the Greek EPIC Cohort Study, Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 17 (2), pp. 387-392. Kay, T, J et al 2009, Cancer Incidence in British Vegetarians, British Journal of Cancer, 101, 192-197. Kush, L, H et al 2012, ACS Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for Cancer Prevention, A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 62, (1), pp. 30-67. Mangels, R, Messina, V, & Messina, M, 2011, The dietitian's guide to vegetarian diets: Issues and applications, Jones & Bartlett Learning, Sudbury, MA. Marsh, K, Zeuschner, C, & Saunders, A 2012, Health Implications of a Vegetarian Diet: A Review. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, pp. 1-18. McEvoy, C, T, Temple, N, & Woodside, J, V 2012, Vegetarian diets, low meat diets and health: A Review, Public Health Nutrition, 15, (12), pp. 2287-2294. Rose, S. D. (2008). The vegetarian solution: Your answer to cancer, heart disease, global warming and more, Book Publishing, Tennessee, Summertown. Read More