How Culture Has Impacted the Development of Pharmaceutical Drugs - Research Paper Example

Pharmaceuticals and Herbs Outline 1. Introduction………………..………………………………………………….…. 3 2. Use of herbs and culture…………………………………………………….…..3 i. Native Americans use of herbs in medicine…………………..….. 4 ii. Indian use of herbs as medicines…………………………….……. 5 iii. Chinese and Holistic treatment………………………………….…. 5 iv. Herbs in Islamic treatment………………………………………...….6 v. African traditional medicine…………………………………………. 7 vi. Use of Cannabis as medicinal herb by different cultures………… 8 3. Pharmaceutical drugs in a culture ……………………………………………… 9 4. How pharmaceutical drugs and culture interrelate………………………….…11 5. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………...……….13 Pharmaceuticals and Herbs Introduction Pharmaceuticals and herbal medicines might take different approaches to healing. However, that does not mean that they can not have a combined excellence. Most modern herbalists accept that pharmaceuticals are most effective in emergency periods. For instance, it works well where a patient is experiencing acute heart attack that poses imminent danger. Consequently, pharmaceuticals might have very grave implications on the body. This evidence and experience is supported by chemotherapy patients. On the other side, herbal medicine might be more beneficial particularly in recovery and prevention since it helps to improve the immunity and offers nutritional advantages that pharmaceuticals lack. This paper therefore aims at examine how culture has impacted the development of pharmaceutical drugs. Use of herbs and culture From the Native American, Indian, Chinese, German and American perspective, herbal medicine is about healing the person rather than curing a disease. Traditional healers’ objective is to make one whole through restoring harmonious relationships and well-being with the community and the spirit of nature. Cultural healing is supported by the belief that everyone and everything is interconnected. According to cultural beliefs, illness are said to be as a result of spiritual problems. Cultural belief observes that diseases are more likely to invade the body of a person who has negative thinking, or lives an unhealthy lifestyle. This cultural observation is true and is supported by scientific reports on mental disorders. According to Native American healers inherited conditions, such as birth defects, are as a result of immorality and lifestyles of the parents therefore and as such are not easily treated. There are many types of cultural healing practices, and they are so forth advocated as to help with a variety of illnesses. Some of the most common aspects of cultural healing include the use of herbal remedies, purifying rituals, shamanism, and symbolic healing rituals to treat illnesses of both the body and spirit. Herbal remedies are used to treat various physical conditions. Practitioners of herbal medicine use cleansing and purifying rituals to the body and set up the person for healing. This idea and approach is also practiced by pharmaceuticals but might have it observed differently to prepare patients for treatment. For instance, pharmaceuticals use laboratory-tested purifiers to cleanse and prepare patients. Native Americans use of herbs in medicine According to studies, scientific and cultural Native American healing has been in use in North America for a period of over 40,000 years. It evidently has roots in common with different cultures like the ancient Chinese and Ayurvedic traditions (Zimmerman 63). However, it has also been necessitated by the natural environment which Native Americans settled upon, the nature, plants, and animals around them. There are various cultural Native American healing practices. This is because there are varied cultures and ethnicities in America. These varied ethnical differences result to healing rituals and beliefs to vary greatly in Native Americans. This variance of tradition results to the factoring of information on healing practices therefore generally causing it to be limited. Indian use of herbs as medicines In other societies and cultures, herbal medicine is used in treatment as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), (Zimmerman 67). For example in India, the use of herbal drugs has become an integral aspect of The Indian Systems of Medicine (Ayurveda); this is an old and mainstream structure. More so, India has a rich culture when it comes to herbal, therefore resulting in a high usage of self-medication. As noted by Zimmerman these herbal drugs are easily available since they are sold openly in market places (67). Sadly, the fact these herbal drugs are easily available, they are used even by those who are not in need of them. Owing to the rich culture and easy accessibility of herbal drugs in India, the country has the biggest number of herbal medicine users in the whole world. Interestingly, the healthcare providers seem not to have taken great interest regarding this aspect. However, there are efforts by the healthy ministry to inculcate the Ayurvedic method, into contemporary medicine, this would be more beneficial and important. Chinese and Holistic treatment In Chinese culture, acupuncture is highly practiced; in fact it is viewed as a mainstream kind of treatment. However, in western culture, this form of treatment is taken as another form of alternative medicine. Yuan and Yuan reports that acupuncture is use to treat headaches, backaches, arthritis, neck pains and even infertility (65). Holistic healing uses symbolic healing rituals, which might involve family members and friends of the sick person through invoking the spirits to help heal the sick person. Among the Chinese, Indians, Native Americans and other communities, the use of culture and scientific practices show that these practices intertwine since that all aim to heal the patient. However, holistic approach has a varied approach though it also seeks to bring good health to its seekers. These cultures in most cases seek guidance, truth; to heal their ills while on the other hand they seek herbal and pharmaceutical means to heal them. On other occasions, a holistic practice known as smudging might be applied to cleanse a person or place using smoke from plants that are considered sacred. This practice might cause the patient to regain sensitivity and consciousness which would then lead to other healing approaches. Since some diseases are regarded to be caused by angry spirits, cultural healers might invoke healing abilities of spirits. These holistic healers might also apply exceptional rituals in order to appease angered spirits therefore bringing healing to the ill. However, Native American cultural healing like scientific healing is usually gradual and might last for some days or even weeks. Herbs in Islamic treatment Muslims believe that all diseases in this world have remedies; this has made Muslims healers to seek for medicinal substances. The classic Islamic medical structure that was created in during the ancient times comprises of both herbal and spiritual elements of treatment that included the use of herbal substances to treat different diseases. At the same time, the use of spiritual supplications in treating physical and psychological diseases has remained prominent in Islamic culture. Herbal substances and spiritual supplication were used in Islamic culture for both preventative and curative purposes (Yousif). Yousif further notes that, Islamic culture as also encouraged the use of pharmaceutical drugs that were development in traditional times and this has continued even today. However, because of varying cultures of Muslims, their approach to both herbal and pharmaceutical drugs differs to great extend. There are some Muslims that have a radical culture, and thus reject the use of pharmaceutical drugs, particularly when it comes to immunization. Another aspect that has been stressed in Islamic culture and which is followed by many Muslims around the world is proper dietary. Islamic cultures advocates for healthy eating and Muslims are encouraged to drink milk, eat meat and vegetables, eat fruits such as dates and take herbal tea. At the same time, they are discouraged from drinking alcohol and eating any food that can harm them. All these practices are meant to improve their health. African traditional medicine Traditional medicine and healing are main aspects of African diverse culture. Traditional African medicine is a holistic approach that entails wide use of traditional herbalism together with elements of African spirituality (oilsandplants.com). Majority of African societies and cultures believe that diseases are results from malevolence of witches, evil spirits or sorcerers. Thus, herbalist healers attract some kind of spiritual focus within the community. Many African communities also believe that diseases are religious experiences that come from the gods for wrong deeds committed by the community. Mental illness is believed to be caused by bad spirits or witch craft, or actions of bad people. There are a bout 3,000 different African tribes and each of this tribe have some differences regarding treatments practices. However, many of this healing system center on secrecy and knowledge is a measure of authority and influence. In African cultures, diseases are avoided through adhering to taboos and norms, wearing amulets, offering beneficent to ancestors or performing ritual dancing. These spiritual acts are followed up by application of herbs by the herbalists. However, charms and chants are thought to enhance the effectiveness of herbal drugs. Many of the African herbalists claim to have herbs and powers to treat a broad range of diseases such as cancers, infertility, sexual transmitted diseases and even HIV/Aids. Traditional African healers include diviners, herbalists and midwives all these perform specific duties regarding treatment and healing (oilsandplants.com). The herbalists’ uses medicine in powder form, roots, leaves, seeds, herbs, bones and even minerals. Treatment processes include message, bleeding, thorns and the patient could be asked to make sacrifices. Africa has a large number of medicinal plants such as Securidaca Longepedunculata, a tropical plant commonly found in many regions of Africa used to treat the nerves system (oilsandplants.com). Though the main users of African herbs have been the local population, these medicinal plants have started to attract various local and international researchers. Indeed, the pharmaceutical industry of late has come to acknowledge traditional African herbs as a source of bio-active agents that can be used in manufacture of pharmaceutical drugs. Use of Cannabis as medicinal herb by different cultures As noted by Mikuriya (18) medicinal properties of marijuana are obtained from different chemicals in its bud, leaves as well as resins. Indeed, it is thought that marijuana was used for medicinal use as earlier as 2000 BC in China. However, other societies have also used marijuana to as medicine (Mikuriya 18). According to Mikuriya studies that were done by William Shaughnessy in the 19th century found out that marijuana had the ability to successfully treat different maladies (Mikuriya 18). These findings were in agreement by the very first detailed study on marijuana medicinal properties performed by Ohio State Medical Society in 1860 (Mikuriya, 19). Indians use of cannabis as a medicine is more than any other Asian countries. Cannabis drug extracted from poppy plant is also being locally produced within the country of India and is native healers advocate its consumption. This has been necessitated by the belief that it is a good source of medicinal use. Evidence provided by the government and other agencies indicate that natives largely rely on this for healing. The estimated amount of cannabis consumed in Bangladesh amounts to 4 mt in 2008, and Nepal’s cannabis consumption as a medicinal has increased over the years. However, lack of accurate and current information on the prevalence of its use to treat ailments has raised concern on its ability. Pharmaceutical drugs in a culture The previous sections have clearly examined several cultures and how they use herbs for medicinal purposes. As examined, this ranges from use of cannabis among the Indians to the use of holistic treatment used by some Chinese populations (Yuan and Yuan 87). In various examples and those that have been discussed in this paper, a pattern of herbal drug use that has been historically incorporated into a given culture is differentiated with the similar or different herbal drugs in different cultures but in a manner that is aimed for treatment. Indeed, pharmaceutical medicine emerged in the 16th century when the use of active chemical drugs, such as mercury, was introduced to fight syphilis, which proved particularly resistant to traditional medical solutions. Cultural differences influence the perceptive and interpretation of a person on drug effect in a number of ways. Murry established that members of a particular group, the Massai of Kenya reinterpreted mainstream pharmaceuticals drugs in their own cultural context (216). Rituals and rites play a big role in determination of drug impacts, mainly due to the manner in which it is prepared and administered. The role played by cultural aspects in patient’s results from drug treatments clearly requires extensive studies. In deed, there has been long history of how culture has impacted pharmaceutical products of today that dates back to ancient time. There has basically been tremendous and substantial evidence of different herbal types of medicine used in early periods. Clearly there have been numerous advancements that have occurred since the earlier times, but there are many cultures and societies that have greatly influenced pharmaceutical development. The Native Americans are credited for discovering a number of new medicinal plants as well as other botanicals that were very effective in treatment of various diseases and maladies, and many of them are still being used today by pharmaceutical companies to develop modern drugs. Tilburta and Kaptchukb explains that one particular plant that has been used for many years in its natural form as a herbal medicine is the Aloe Vera, a plant know to many people and which is today used to produce various types of pharmaceutical and beauty products (233). The plant is well known for its abilities of helping in the healing of wounds. Some other cultures that have played a big role in pharmaceutical industry are those of China and India. As pointed out by Tilburta and Kaptchukb, a big proportion of medicinal philosophies of these two cultures are founded on natural thinking (235). These philosophies are still being used today, and as of now many of these philosophies have been adopted by pharmaceutical companies and used in manufacturing of modern drugs. At the same, a lot of people are going back to these past Chinese and Indian cultural philosophies in relation to herbal medicine; this is the reason as to why there has been increased usage of alternative medicine, yoga, and acupuncture. With increase in patient cases suffering from side effects of conventional medicines due to wrong prescriptions or any other reason, the popularity of these traditional practices is increasing. Accordingly this also increases their impact on pharmaceutical drugs. However, the role-played by western medicine and the advancement that has taken place regarding treatment cannot be underestimated. How pharmaceutical drugs and culture interrelate The assimilation of herbal medicine into modern pharmaceuticals practices in disease management and treatment takes into consideration the interrelated issues of efficacy, quality, and safety (Saxena 155). Quality is the most fundamental matter since it affects the safety and or efficacy of the herbal and pharmaceuticals products. There are scientific and culture interrelations in pharmaceutical and herbal medicinal healing, among the Native American, Chinese, Indian, German and others. This is because healing is a term used by both culture and scientific; it encompasses healing practices and or beliefs. Native healing through herbal medicine involves religion, spirituality, and rituals that are used to treat individuals with emotional and medical conditions. However, lack of clinical and pharmacological information on the most herbal medicinal products is a major obstacle to the inclusion of herbal medicines into modern day medical practices. For authentic integration, it is paramount to pharmacological and particularly clinical evaluations to be done on those plants without such information (Praveen 175). In herbal and pharmaceuticals medicine, there are adverse cultural events, including drug-herb interaction which should be monitored in order to advocate for a safe incorporation of efficacious medical practices. Most cultures believe pharmaceutical and herbal medicines can help cure physical diseases, injuries, and emotional problems. For instance, some herbal administers claim to cure conditions like diabetes, heart disease, skin rashes, thyroid problems, asthma, and even cancer. However, scientific data on pharmaceutical evaluations do not support such claims. As explained by Praveen (176) herbal medicine is currently used in different cultures in different forms as alternative medicine, examples of these forms include aromatherapy, herbology, acupunctures and other types of alternative medicine. Just like there are supplementary pharmaceutical drugs, some cultures like the Indian practice herbology, which is explained by Zimmerman as a practice that seeks to, treat people using different types of herbal supplements (65). Zimmerman points out that he has observed people suffering from arthritis, importance, skin diseases and prostrate complication healed by herbs (65). He therefore concludes that if the herbal drugs are given in the correct dosage and in a correct combination can assist a person so much. Conclusion From this discussion it is clear that culture has played an important role in modern pharmaceutical drugs. Ancient societies and cultures used herbal medicines, herbal drinks such as tea, foods, and even physical methods like yoga and mediation in treating different aliments that affected them. Indeed, the Native American, the Chinese and Indians greatly influenced the pharmaceutical drugs through their numerous and advance herbal remedies. In China and India, herbal medicine still is used extensively, other cultures refer to them as alternative medicines; however, people in these cultures view the herbal medicine as their main stream medicine. Though modern pharmaceutical drugs have been developed and there are being used around the world, they have greatly borrowed many herbal medicines and practices from different cultures and incorporated them to produce the pharmaceutical drugs. A good example is the use of Aloe Vera as a pharmaceutical drug, yet it has been used in many cultures and for many years. General, as observed by Zimmerman (118) culture play important role in the manner in which pharmaceutical drugs are manufactured and even used. Work cited Mikuriya, Tod: Marijuana:-Medical Papers 1839-1972(Ed.): Oakland, CA: Medi-Comp Press. 1973. Print. The use of marijuana as medicinal herb has always been controversial, with some people arguing and doubting about its medicinal properties. Mikuriya in his book, that is primarily written to describe the healing aspects of marijuana, collects diverse and several professional journal articles that deals with medicinal applications as well as the scientific attributes of marijuana. The range of this articles is basically wide, many they are general obtained from scientific and medical sources. These articles provide information on the study of marijuana and its pharmacological effects that differs basing on the manner in which people uses it. The accounts in the book given by researchers and patients are used to remind the audience about the nature of human psyche over time. The book also has historical background on use of marijuana in different societies. Going through this book, the reader will be surprised to note that though scientific equipments and technology have been greatly advanced, the nature of human still remains the same. The author concludes by saying that clear and critical thinking makes more humble and understand that what is modern does not always mean that it is the best. Murry Hope: The Psychology of Healing; Great Britain: Element Books, 1989. Print. This book offers insight information regarding the psychology of healing. According to this book, the act of healing lies mainly in the perception of an individual regarding the treatment he receives. The book goes on to explain that the concept of treatment used by herbalist relies heavily on the psychology and spiritual, and not much on the active elements contained in the herbs. The article as well provides the arguments of as to why many people are turning to alternative medicine, and the methods that are used. In general, this book is an overview of important questions asked healing using alternative medicines. Hope Murry a renowned and respectable psychology present pertinent information that can be relied upon when studying psychological aspects affecting healing. This book is intended for a general audience as it’s informative and simple to understand. Oil and Plants: African Folk Medicine: 2011 This website provides detailed information on African herbal medicine. Africans are famous for believing in spiritual world and witchcraft. The author explains that in Africa illness is believed to be caused by bad spirits, or as a punishment from the gods for wrong deeds done by the community. Many African communities as well believes that illness is caused by other evil people who through witchcraft or sorcery. According to this website, treatment of sickness and other diseases involves use of herbs and spiritual practices that involves rites and rituals. Different practices of the Ifa of West Africa are explained as a case study. For those who wish to have an overview of the African traditional medicine, this website offers a good starting point. Saxena, Praveen: Development of plant-based medicines: conservation, efficacy, and safety: Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 2001.Print. The author notes that the “plant” is normally neglected, though it is the one that gives rise to medicine. Accordingly Saxena observes that from ancient times, man has searched gathered and successful applied plants as herbal medicine in healing of different diseases. Presently, pharmaceutical drugs are flourishing at a very high rate, though many of these drugs are derived from plants. The interrelationship of the herbal medicines and the pharmaceutical drugs continues, and there is long standing problems concerning safety as well as efficacy of herbal medicines. Thus, there are several challenges regarding the safety and efficacy of some of the herbal and traditional medicines that are being used. This particular book discusses a number of latest advancements and new technologies and practices that are being used in herbal medicines, and which also advances the pharmaceutical drugs usage, the book raises important question in the pharmaceutical industry and plant-based medicine. Tilburta Jon & Ted J Kaptchukb: Herbal medicine research and global health: an ethical analysis: Department of Clinical Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America: Osher Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. Publication: Bulletin of the World Health Organization; Type: Policy and Practice Article DOI: 2007: 10.2471/BLT.07.042820. Print. Governments, pharmaceutical companies and other international bodies are currently increasingly involved in doing research on traditional herbal medicines. However, there is minimal literature available to address the ethical problems and challenges that such studies face. In this article the authors uses concepts and models in an extensive ethical arrangement in examining clinical research on international traditional herbal drugs. The article extensively looks at three main aspects, underappreciated dimensions arising from the ethical structure, whereby difficulty questions arises, the social values as well as scientific validity and important challenges that exists in establishing the common social value concepts. Nonetheless, the authors assert that there is need for collaborative partnerships to deal with these ethical challenges. This article presents interesting information that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and other people interested in doing studies on herbal medicines, and how they can negotiate the numerous ethical aspects that are bound to arise. Yousif Ahmad F.: Muslim Medicine and Health Care: 2006; : Website. 9th June, 2011 In this article written Ahmad Yousif, the author gives a comprehensive and informative account of Islamic teaching on medicine and health matters. The author delves deep into historical background of the topic and current gives a good narrative quoting from the Holy Quran that is the ultimate on Islamic teachings. Accordingly, the author points out that western modern science and the Islamic tradition do integrate science, and in this case medicine into cultural aspects. Islamic teaches people and the whole societies, away in which they can live well physically, mentally and morally. Yosuf further points out that the Islamic legal system and culture or practices, teaches people to create a healthy surrounding in which they can live to derive positive aspects on their well-being. This article offer key information on Islamic teaching and cultures and its good for those who want to have background information on this topic. Yuan Robert and Yuan Lin: Traditional Chinese medicine: an approach to scientific proof and clinical validation: Pharmacology 2000; 86: 191-8: 10.1016/S0163- 7258(00)00039-5 pmid: 10799714. Print. The traditional Chinese pharmacopoeia explains an extensive variety of herbal formulations that were used and those that are still being used in treatment of different types of illness. This treatment is ignored by a lot of people and seen at alternative medicine. However, Yuan and Yuan points out that scientific proof as well as clinical proof of these herbs need through methodology that entails use of chemical standardization, animal tests as well clinical trials. But they authors observe that these kind of western test have to take into consideration the complexity of chemical and mixtures used and the manner in which it will affect these herbal medicines. This article examines in details the relevant previous studies undertaken on the use of Chinese traditional medicines in treating illnesses such as asthma, and atopic dermatitis. This article gives a good analysis of Chinese herbal formulations and the author presents pertinent information on this topic. Zimmerman, Larry: Native North America. London, England: 1996. Print. The author elaborates how different native societies of North America, uses alternative medicine and how they have been used for the long period. Zimmerman further explores the various types of ancient medicine used and the manner in which they are used among the native North American societies. It is interesting to note how native healers use different methods of treatment and even at times evoke spiritual visions when formulating their mixtures that they give to their patients. Zimmerman uses is extensive research on Native North Americans, on giving deep and detailed information on Native American Indians and their medical activities and cultures, describing their various form that herbs are presented, that include food, teas and juices. This book is vital for those who want to understand herbal medicine use among Native Americans. Read More