Biodiversity and Ethno botanist Exploitation by Pharmaceutical Companies - Essay Example

?Biodiversity and Ethno botanist Exploitation by Pharmaceutical Companies Introduction Plants have been used by humankind for various purposes in thehistory of the world. Not only have they been used as sources of food, for shelter and a reservoir of genetic material but also for medicinal purposes. Tropical forests particularly have been a major source of compounds that serve as medicines for various ailments, conditions and diseases. In fact, the rainforest has been dubbed the ultimate chemical laboratory considering that every species therein experiments with different chemical defenses to ensure that their survival is guaranteed in the harsh environment (Mongabay par 1). Plants in the rainforests have been synthesizing the various chemical compounds to have a protective edge against diseases, pests, infection and predators for millions of years. As such, rainforest species are known pharmacists as a wonderful reservoir of chemical and medicinal templates that can be used in the production of new drugs. Traditional herbalists and ethnobotanists have been in existence in various society since time immemorial. They are known to posses vast knowledge of the biodiversity in their local environments and have lately been an important source of information for researchers and pharmaceutical companies in their endeavor to make new drugs. Even as they reveal the knowledge that they have gained from years of experience and from the wealth of knowledge passed to them from previous generations, one question that is yet to be fully answered is how much do they gain by revealing such information to the world. Pharmaceutical companies commonly tap into the wealth of knowledge that ethnobotanists and traditional herbalists have without compensating them adequately, only using this information to enrich themselves with gross disregard to property rights and common good. This paper seeks to analyze how poor indigenous tribes and precious plants have been exploited by pharmaceutical companies for their (pharmaceutical companies) own advantage. The pharmaceutical industry and medicinal plants A wide range of healing compounds from plants in the form of secondary metabolites have been used for a long time in history. Plants as sources of healing substances are evident in the fact that many of them were planted at home within the close reach of the homeowners for use in the event of ailment. Many medicinal plants were thus planted in farm gardens so that they could be used for treating fast illnesses whenever they occurred even without the intervention of other remedies. Physicians, midwives and herbalists in the 1800s were specifically trained in the use of medicinal plants to solve various medicinal conditions. During this time, plants parts were widely used by medical practitioners to cure various ailments in line with the teachings they received in their learning institutions. The pharmaceutical industry has flourished for a long time going by the number of large and highly profitable pharmaceutical companies that exist especially in wealthy countries today. The industry greatly relies on plant derivatives and should reasonably be at the forefront in pushing for plant conservation according to (Lapinskas par 1). Like every other business entity, pharmaceutical companies have profits at the top of their agenda. Indeed, without profits, they are doomed to fail however worthy their courses are. In order to remain in business, the companies have to seek ways of maximizing their profits and minimizing their costs. These two objectives are usually achieved by engaging in research with an aim of developing new products, improving efficiency and using cheaper raw materials. Pharmaceutical organizations use plants in two main ways; as raw material and as inspiration for new products according to Lapinskas (par 3). These organizations have established massive screening programs to identify plants that could be used for making new drugs, thousands of compounds being analysed every year in this respect. When a compound is identified as a potential solution to a medical condition, the need to maximize efficiency pressure normally takes effect. This may dictate that the company first synthesise the chemical or alternatively apply fermentation technology in its production. In the event that this fails to work only then will the company take the option of collecting plant material for the same purpose. However, companies would rather seek alternative sources rather than engage in conservation exercises. In this sense, less pressure is exerted on the plant resource (Lapinskas par 3) also considering that the reliance on wild sources production cannot be predicted as there is rapid fluctuation in their supply. Harvesting of aromatics and medicinals in developing countries Today, it is noted that close to 30 percent of all biomedicine drugs were initially plant derivatives Taylor (57). According to Fao (par 1), the United States of America trades 2000 million USD in botanical medicine annually. According to Taylor (56), the use of herbal medicine in the United States of America is growing at the rate of 20% per annum. The herbal product market in Germany, in 1979, was close to 1700 million USD. Many developed countries earn a lot of income by trading on botanical medicine derived from poor countries as many pharmaceutical companies capitalize on the growing demand for the products. Some common phytochemicals derived from plants in use today for various purposes include steroids, codeine, reserpine, atropine, digitoxin and quinidine, just to mention a few. Fao (par 2) notes that most pharmaceutical companies engage in wild harvesting as the primary source of valuable compounds used in making their products. This, according to Fao, has resulted in the overexploitation of plant resources in times of high demand. Many experts have argued that for a long period of time, indigenous people have gotten to acquire traditions and knowledge that allow them to exploit their environment while at the same time conserving it since they realize how much they depend on it (Anup par 1). Many indigenous cultures consider their medical system as part of their cultural heritage. The Caboclo people, locals of the Amazon, for instance are proud of their understanding of disease and alternative treatment methods. When such people’s knowledge is taken away by multinational companies, they end up getting deprived of a part of their cultural lifestyle. Multinational companies have grossly exploited the knowledge and lands belonging to indigenous people as they seek to fulfill their interests of gaining medical knowledge and huge profits (Taylor 57). In fact, many pharmaceutical companies are sending representatives in Africa and Amazon in search of potentially valuable herbal remedies (Taylor 57). It may be reasonably argued that when pharmaceutical companies make huge profits from the resources of indigenous people, they should compensate them adequately for their contributions. However, this is rarely ever the case. In most cases, the indigenous people are never compensated as their knowledge and resources are mass marketed and exploited in the biomedical system (Taylor 57). The multinational companies often go to the extent of taking the knowledge of the locals, patent, produce en-mass and sell the products back to them at high cost. As a result, the ethnic identity, self esteem, social roles and traditions get negatively affected according to Taylor (58). One example of where indigenous knowledge has been exploited by is with respect to Duboisia. Duboisa is naturally found in New South Wales and Queensland and is rich in hyoscine (Anup par 6). The compound is used as a truth serum and sedative. Another example is with respect to smokebush, a plant rich in Conocurvone and naturally growing in certain parts of Australia (Janke par 3). The compound is known to destroy the HIV virus when used in low concentration. Yet another example is the use of tree bark that has 100 times more analgesic properties compared to morphine (Anup par 6). These medicinal plants have been exploited to the advantage of multinational companies without due regard to sustainability and environmental conservation, not even crediting those who initially had the knowledge of the benefits of the plants. Ethnobotanists and indigenous people exploited by pharmaceutical companies Ethnobotany is a field of study concerned with how people of a given culture and region use indigenous plants. Ethnobotanists investigate how plants are used for things such as shelter, medicine, food and clothing. Ethnobotany traces its roots in botany which has close ties medicine. Most of today’s medicinal drugs have been created from plant sources and for so many years, typical forest plant species have been used by people of the tropics as a source of medicines. The indigenous knowledge of the ethnobotanists on plants has been used by different countries in different ways. A huge number of medical practitioners who have been trained in pharmacology and pharmacognosy are much aware of the amount of current therapeutic agents which have been created from tropical forest species. In fact, more than 121 pharmaceutical products that are now in use are derived from plants, and about seventy five percent of these were found through examination of the use of these plants in traditional medicine. The use of herbal medicine among pharmaceutical companies has really grown in recent times and most modern pharmaceutical firms trace their origin from plant products and the knowledge of ethnobotanists or indigenous peoples. Most pharmaceutical companies have grown huge interest in herbal medicine and this interest has led them into believing that there are great profits in medicinal plants, thus they have turned their focus towards indigenous land and knowledge for new resources that can be used in developing new drugs. The knowledge of ethnobotanists is in great demand and usually sought by pharmaceutical companies and medical researchers in their fight to come up with new medicines and products for commercial exploitation. Until early 1980s, plants were viewed as the only source of new pharmaceutical products. However, recent discoveries in genetic engineering, molecular biology and computational chemistry have shown that some drugs can be created without exploring nature’s chemical diversity (Acharya and Shrivastava 42). This has therefore rendered the knowledge of ethnobotanists unnecessary in the development of new drugs and products in the pharmaceutical companies. However, although plants have been replaced by chemically synthesized drugs as the source of medicinal agents in developed countries, they remain the basis for most drug developments according to Acharya and Shrivastava (42). The new discoveries have lowered the number of ethnobotanists who are consulted by the pharmaceutical firms in the development of drugs but have led to greater payment of the few consulted. Quite a good number of pharmaceutical companies such Shaman pharmaceuticals have realized the importance of ethnobotanists in the field of pharmacy thus have ensured that the few ethnobotanists they consult or contract get better compensation (Bierer, Carlson and King par 3). Pharmaceutical companies rely on indigenous resources to create new drugs. However, these indigenous resources can only be perfectly identified by ethnobotanists. Therefore, instead of carrying out expensive, random testing of plants, a good number of pharmaceutical companies contract ethnobotanists to carry out research among the indigenous. Another example is in Brazil, where their study on the knowledge of the indigenous people on pilocarpups jaborandi plant was exploited and used by pharmaceutical companies in creating pilocarpine drug used in treating glaucoma (Bierer, Carlson and King par 3). The knowledge of ethnobotanists was also used in creating the anti-malarial drug quinine. Quinine is found from the bark of many species on cinchona trees which originated from the royal households of the South American Incas. The bark of the plant was used by the native people of the Andes and Amazon highland as an infusion to treat fever. With this knowledge presented by ethnobotanists the bark of the plant was exploited by pharmaceutical companies to create the quinine drug. Besides creation of new drugs, the genes and tissues of indigenous people have been used by pharmaceutical companies in genetic testing and screening projects (Bierer, Carlson and King par 3). The examples given above are only a few of the drugs that have been created from the knowledge of indigenous people (ethnobotanists). However, although the knowledge of indigenous resources has been of great importance to most pharmaceutical companies in the discovery of new drugs, the exploitation has been done without the consent of ethnobotanists and they have not benefited. The companies have used their cultural knowledge of plants, environment and animals in medical researches without acknowledging and compensating their efforts. The exploitation of indigenous populations goes beyond the exploitation of their knowledge. The Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP) is one example of where multinational companies are seeking to benefit massively from the indigenous tribes for their uniqueness. The human genome diversity project (HGDP) which commenced in 1990 in North America and Europe has used the tissues and genes of indigenous people in mapping and the sequencing composition of human genome (Valdez par 4). In 1995, the United States National Institute of Health was awarded a patent on a New Guinean with links to a virus associated with leukemia (Valdez par 4). It has been argued by certain quarters that the HGDP scientists would attend to the interests of commercial pharmaceutical companies by exploiting their subjects to the advantage of the former. The communities targeted by the HGDP remain a resource beyond value to the research which ultimately will benefit mainly the Western world. According to Valdez, the Western world in its greed and lust for money will do everything possible to find the cure for various ailments not for the benefit of the masses but purely to make cash out of those who are less informed. Conclusion The importance of plants in the development of drugs cannot be underestimated. Indeed many of the drugs that sit on the shelves of pharmaceutical companies are a result of plant derivatives some of which originated from remote parts of the world. Many arguments have been posted regarding the exploitation of plants, ethnobotanists, herbalists and indigenous people by large pharmaceutical companies. While some argue that the companies are innocent in that they commonly manufacture synthetic compounds similar to those derived from plants to come up with mass-produced products, others argue that the companies unduly exploit resources without regard to the environment and those who contribute the knowledge. Going by the arguments posted above, it goes beyond doubt the later argument holds more water. The Human Genome Diversity Project is one case of undue exploitation by researchers working for huge organization against the benefit of their subjects. Another case in point is in regard to For the indigenous knowledge of Duboisia plant has been used by pharmaceutical companies in creating a drug used as a truth serum and a sedative in treating motion sickness. Duboisia is a plant found in Queensland and northern New South Wales. It contains hyoscine and it is this component that has been used in creating the drug.In most discoveries of pharmaceutical companies, indigenous knowledge from the ethnobotanists have been consulted and used. Works Cited Acharya, Deepak and Shrivastava Anshu. Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices. Aavishkar Publishers. India. 2008. Anup Shah. Rights of Indigenous People. 2010. Viewed 20 June, 2011 http://www.globalissues.org/article/693/rights-of-indigenous-people Bierer Donald, Carlson Thomas and King Steven. Shaman Pharmaceuticals: Integrating Indigenous Knowledge, Tropical Medicinal Plants, Medicine, Modern Science and Reciprocity into a Novel Drug Discovery Approach. Viewed 20 June, http://www.netsci.org/Science/Special/feature11.html FAO. Use and potential of wild plants in farm households. Nd. Viewed 20 June, 2011 http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/W8801E/w8801e05.htm Janke Terri . Biodiversity, patents and Indigenous Peoples. 2011. Viewed 20 June, http://www.waccglobal.org/en/19992-key-issues-in-global-communications/826-Biodiversity-patents-and-Indigenous-Peoples--.htmlTaylor Andrew. The Impact of Commodification of Herbal Medicine by Pharmaceutical and Drug Development Companies. Nexus Vol15 (2001/2002). Department ofAnthropology. McMaster University. Viewed 20 June, 2011 http://digitalcommons.mcmaster.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1126&context=nexus&sei-redir=1#search=%22Pharmaceutical+explotation+of+indigenous+tribes%22 Lapinskas Peter. Medicinal plants and the pharmaceutical industry. 1993. Viewed 20 June, 2011 http://www.lapinskas.com/publications/1486.html Mongabay. Medicinal Plants. 2011. Viewed 20 June, 2011 http://rainforests.mongabay.com/1007.htm Valdez Lucas. Human Genome Project Patenting Indigenous People. 2009. Viewed 20 June, 2011 http://lucasvaldez.posterous.com/human-genome-project-patenting-indigenous-peo xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Topic:  Biodiversity. How Pharmaceutical companies are extracting precious plants and knowledge from poor countries and indigenous tribes strictly for profit. Instructions: This paper must be argumentative preferably against PHarmaceutical companies. It should show that Pharmaceutical companies are gaining strictly for profit when they take plants and medicinal knowledge from indigenous tribes. I would like to see this paper outline how pharma is getting richer rather than looking to preserve knowledge and assist those who are ill with new technological advances and discovery. The paper must be argumentative. Suggested Outline Introduction History of the use of plants for curative and pharmaceutical purposes Use of Plants for medicinal purposes today Examples of where/how traditional knowledge of ethnobotanists have been used to make useful pharmaceutical products. Sustainable harvesting versus unsustainable harvesting Ethnobotanist Explotation by Pharmaceutical Companies Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants, Indigenous intellectual property, property right (argue that ethnobotanists are being exploited by pharmaceutical companies, give examples) Argue that ethnobotanists are not being exploited by pharmaceutical companies, give examples) Conclusion Xx http://digitalcommons.mcmaster.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1126&context=nexus&sei-redir=1#search=%22Pharmaceutical+explotation+of+indigenous+tribes%22 http://lucasvaldez.posterous.com/human-genome-project-patenting-indigenous-peo http://www.netsci.org/Science/Special/feature11.html http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/none/source-our-cures-new-pharmaceutical-company-wants-prov http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge http://www.globalissues.org/article/693/rights-of-indigenous-people Style:  MLA  Language Style:   English (U.S.)  Grade:   n/a  Pages:  10  Sources:   10  Read More