Geology of Afghanistan - Research Paper Example

Geology of Afghanistan Afghanistan is renowned for having some of the richest and most diverse geology in the world. US Geological Survey (USGS) has always assumed that Afghanistan had huge deposit of essential minerals, including such rare earth metals, copper and gold. Geological surveys dating back to the early 20th century were finding this to be true. Recent findings of cerium, neodymium, and other light rare earth metals in Helmand province offer lucrative mining operations, but unfortunately the Taliban control much of that area and large portions of southern Afghanistan. These critical geological sites could be crucial to boosting the economy of this troubled country and the exploitation of these resources could lead to the discovery of some untapped wealth that could go some way to funding the rebuilding of the country politically and economically (Dalton, 2007). Secondly, it is important that Afghan geologists themselves are educated in modern geographical techniques (Bohannon, Abraham & Medlin, 2008) so they have the ability to explore their own country and add to the literature on the subject themselves. The purpose of this paper is to explore the geology of Afghanistan and investigate the potential sources of geological wealth that can be found within the borders. As previously mentioned, the development of mining operations could help to create political stability to the war-torn country. Currently Afghan and US Geological Survey teams are guarded by Afghan and Coalition troops, but these troops only allow a few short hours for the survey teams to conduct geological research. This puts the survey teams into stressful situations because geological surveys normally take days and sometimes longer to correctly dig, sift and map out sites that may have precious metals to be extracted from the earth. Minimum time is allotted because this does not give the insurgents’ time to gather their forces and attack kill or kidnap survey teams and their protectors. Political Geology US geologists, along with their Afghan and British counterparts, suggest that the geology of Afghanistan may hold a treasure trove of mineral wealth worth billions of dollars but due to the current instability of Afghanistan, it will be a challenge for geologists and the mining industry to get those wealthy rare earth deposits out of the ground. US military and Foreign Policy will most likely play an instrumental part in destroying the Taliban strongholds that dominate the mineral rich areas in question. The US is drawing down its presence in Iraq and would like to keep a presence in the Afghan region but its sphere of influence may be waning due to the enormous cost of US troop deployments and expensive costs to the US economy. China is already staking claims and interest in the Afghan region, as are Pakistan and India. The USGS has used satellite imagery, remote-sensing surveys and on-the-ground fieldwork under military protection to determine the most promising new deposits (Dalton, 2007), but eventually the US geological scientist will have to let their Afghan counterparts take the lead so the main concern now is getting the Afghans up to speed on the latest technical innovations in geo-sciences. The Afghan geologists have been isolated from this technology for over 25 years due to war and political strife and teaching the Afghan scientists the basic concept of plate tectonics is essential. This concept, in which the planet's crust is fractured into jigsaw-like puzzles pieces that move and crash together, transformed the understanding of the earth in the years after the Afghans were cut off from the outside world. It illustrates why earthquakes occur, volcanoes erupt and mountains rise up. It also explains why Afghanistan, is so abundant with minerals. Much of the now landlocked country formed through collisions of four or five crust pieces. These connecting boundaries are likely to be where many of the world's major metal deposits occur (Schindler, 2002). Figure 1 illustrates how Kabul has developed geographically as a result of these features. Figure 1 – General Kabul Basin Geology The situation is, however, improving. The geology of Afghanistan is becoming recognized as important more frequently. This is in part due to the publication of maps because of the engagement of the US military in the area, and in part because of the interest in the Afghanistan politically and economically (Schindler, 2002). Knowledge of the area from a geological perspective is necessary for the advancement of both the military and the political status of the country. Natural and Manmade Caves The invasion of Iraq has piqued interest in the natural and particularly manmade caves in the area, which are in abundance. The current thought is that these caves could be used to hide terrorist activity. Current literature on these is not extensive and the political battles in the area make precise lithographical analysis of these caves difficult. Additionally, the number of references to large natural caves in the literature is low, perhaps because of the tectonic plate activity, the dry climate or the presence of political strife (Brookfield & Hashmat, 2002). There are, however, caves that are well known; the Tora Bora tunnel systems. These caves are lithographically metamorphic gneiss (Schindler, 2002), developed by the Russian invasion and increased in complexity by Al-Quida predominantly by hard-rock mining techniques. Knowledge of these tunnels has highlighted their use for terrorists in the area but the fact that they are predominantly hard rock such as gneiss suggest that they would be difficult to collapse (Schindler, 2002). Knowledge such as this can only be provided by geologists, again highlighting the importance of geology in the political, economic and military fields. Many other caves and tunnels in the area appear to be carved out of metamorphic schist (Schindler, 2002), which would be easier to destroy to political advantage due to its status as a soft rock. This could be used to combat those terrorists who are exploiting these manmade caves, again showing how geological knowledge can be used in a wide variety of fields. The lack of research in the area suggests that there is room for improvement and investigation in the area, again reinforcing the fact that the political strife is having a negative effect on the geological advances made in Afghanistan. Natural Mineral Resources One of the biggest uses of geological information for Afghanistan is, however, the knowledge of the natural mineral resources present in the area (due to the tectonic plate activity) and how these can be used to rebuild the nation. There are many different mineral deposits in Afghanistan that can be used for this purpose. Afghanistan not only has a wealth of standard ore deposits like gold, iron and copper (Dalton, 2007), but a wealth in precious and semi-precious gems such as lapis lazuli (Buchroithner, 1980). Copper is one of the most highly targeted ores for the area, as it has been estimated that Afghanistan is sitting on over 240 million tons, classifying it as a ‘world-class resource’ (Dalton, 2007). Figure 2 shows the location of the main copper deposits in relation to Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan. It is this copper that has caused so much interest from the Chinese corporations. Figure 2 – Location of the Aynak Coppoer Deposit in Afghanistan Because of the burgeoning interested in Afghanistan’s natural resources, teams peiced together details of the deposit from surviving evidence within the Soviet archives (Dalton, 2007). The Afghanistan Geological survey had hidden details of the copper deposits throughout the regime of the Taliban, but the renewed interest in the area allowed these ancient reports to be utilized in a more productive manner. It was when the British Geological Survey (BGS) got hold of these reports, analyzed and rebuilt the area using computerized techniques that the full extent of the economic value of the area came to light. This again highlights how useful geological resources can be in determining the economic worth of the country as well as how necessary it is to get Afghani geologists working on their own soil to provide more detail about the true richness of these copper deposits. The USGS have also been examining the natural resources of Afghanistan, despite political and military turmoil in the area. It has long been believed that Afghanistan has a wealth of coal, and Soviet and Taliban regimes in the area had found coal bands in northern Afghanistan. More recent reports have found another coal deposit potentially worth millions of dollars in the north west of the country, in Pul-I-Khumri (Dalton, 2007). In the past, coal in Afghanistan has been mined using traditional ‘artisanal’ methods, dangerous for miners and geologists alike. However, recent developments in technology are allowing geologists to locate where coal is located beneath a flat weathered surface to use modern coal extraction techniques, which could again provide the country with political and economic self-sufficiency. These deposits are not without their problems, however. Many of the coal deposits, for example, lie deep beneath the surface, causing problems in extraction particularly in a country where the infrastructure is not strong to support these methods. Additionally, some of the coal in Afghanistan is rich in sulphur and flourine, which again makes extraction more difficult. In the case of high levels of flourine, extraction methods would need to ensure that there are measures in place to limit the pollution from the noxious gases produced. Again, Afghanistan does not necessarily have the infrastructure to support this, so it is in the interest of the country to explore this geological resource and use it to political and economic advantage. Hydrogeology Resources A final geological resource explored in the literature is hydrology. Currently, groundwater is a precious resource in Afghanistan (Houben, Niard, Tünnermeier, & Himmelsbach, 2008a), in part due to the wars and problems in the infrastructure of the country. However, there are untapped resources to be found within the country which could be exploited to the advantage of the country. The pH levels of the Kabul basin were found to be very close to neutral, indicating a well-buffered system that could be used, despite the high presence of high salt levels (Houben et al, 2008a). Techniques can be used to oxidise this high salt content (due to excess sewage), releasing the dissolved oxygen and salts in the water. Again, the infrastructure is currently weak in this area, but there is a huge potential to combat this problem and provide Afghanistan with yet another resource that it currently lacks. This hydrogeology resource is different from the mineral resources mentioned above in that it is not a target for international use but would improve the quality of life for those already inhabiting Afghanistan (Houben et al, 2008a). As mentioned above, the Kabul basin is of particular interest to those looking to improve the water resources of the area. The Kabul basin was formed by plate movements in the late Palaeocene (Houben et al, 2008b), and is underlain by metamorphic rocks, much like the caves described above. Diagram 3 illustrates the main stratigraphic features of the area. The main aquifers of the area were formed by Quaternary terrace sediments in the Pleistocene age. However, the weather of the area has led to extensive evaporation, concentrating the salts in the soil of the area, causing problems for the groundwater used for drinking in the area. Despite this problem, it has been noted that these aquifers are of a thickness and conductivity that make this groundwater source a viable resource. However, as with all the resources described within this paper, Afghanistan needs to educate its geologists and learn to exploit this resource for maximum productivity. Diagram 3 – The Stratigraphy of the Kabul Basin Conclusion In conclusion, it is evident that there are many resources in Afghanistan, all of which are not being used to best advantage in part due to the political and economic strife in the area. These resources include sufficient groundwater for the inhabitants of Kabul, copper, precious stones, coal and natural and manmade caves. These are all present in abundance in Afghanistan, but the country does not have the infrastructure to support the full exploitation of the resources, despite high levels of interest internationally. The best way to fully understand these resources is to educate a new generation of Afghani geologists and remove the restrictions on research in the country. The exploitation of these features could lead to a higher level of economic stability for the country and perhaps even allow the country a starting point from which to base a new political agenda. These points highlight the important of geological knowledge and how it can be used to best advantage. Works Cited Brookfield, M. E., & Hashmat, A. (2001). The geology and petroleum potential of the North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northern Afghanistan, with parts of southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan). Earth-Science Reviews, 55(1-2), 41–71. Buchroithner, M. (1980). An outline of the geology of the Afghan Pamirs. Tectonophysics, 62(1-2), 13–35. Dalton, R. (2007). Geology: Mine games. Nature, 449(7165), 968-971. doi:10.1038/449968a Houben, G., Niard, N., Tünnermeier, T., & Himmelsbach, T. (2008). Hydrogeology of the Kabul Basin (Afghanistan), part I: aquifers and hydrology. Hydrogeology Journal, 17, 665-677. doi:10.1007/s10040-008-0377-z Houben, G., Tünnermeier, T., Eqrar, N., & Himmelsbach, T. (2008). Hydrogeology of the Kabul Basin (Afghanistan), part II: groundwater geochemistry. Hydrogeology Journal, 17, 935-948. doi:10.1007/s10040-008-0375-1 Mooney, W., Bohannon, R., Abraham, J., & Medlin, J. (2008). Geophysical and Geologic Training of the Afghan Geological Survey, May, 2008. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts (Vol. 1, p. 0642). Schindler, S. (2002). Afghanistan: Geology in a Troubled Land. Geotimes. Figure 1. General Kabul Basin Geology. From Houben, G., Tünnermeier, T., Eqrar, N., & Himmelsbach, T. (2008). Hydrogeology of the Kabul Basin (Afghanistan), part II: groundwater geochemistry. Hydrogeology Journal, 17, 935-948. doi:10.1007/s10040-008-0375-1 Figure 2 Location of the Aynak Coppoer Deposit in Afghanistan. From Dalton, R. (2007). Geology: Mine games. Nature, 449(7165), 968-971. doi:10.1038/449968a Figure 3 The Stratigraphy of the Kabul Basin. Houben, G., Niard, N., Tünnermeier, T., & Himmelsbach, T. (2008). Hydrogeology of the Kabul Basin (Afghanistan), part I: aquifers and hydrology. Hydrogeology Journal, 17, 665-677. doi:10.1007/s10040-008-0377-z Read More