The Berlin Conference of 1884 and Africa - Research Paper Example

The Berlin conference in 1884-85 was entirely committed to the partitioning of African continent among the European powers. Historians aptly refer the conference as “the scramble for Africa” because it entailed the geographical division of the “dark continent” that had suddenly generated interest in the rapidly industrializing Europe (Pakenham, 1992 p 52). Colonization was the immediate effect that followed the conference and it left lasting economic, geographical, social and political effects in the African continent. Introduction Three centuries before the Berlin conference, African continent had largely remained unexplored territory in Europe and the western countries. The continent was relatively isolated from the rest of the world especially the western countries but historians have recorded early trade in Africa. Trans-Saharan trade is one of the earliest recorded commerce, carried out in Africa between eighth and 16th century (Wright, 2007). According to Wright (2007), Trans -Saharan trade was concentrated in the northern Africa and it involved countries around the Mediterranean Sea and West Africa. The trade route crossed the Saharan desert and the caravans travelled for long distances to obtain goods in various regions covered in the larger frontier. The Arabs dominated the trade and it mainly involved precious metals such as gold that was mined in West African region, ivory, salt and agricultural products. In addition, slave trade was an important component of Trans- Saharan trade, and African servants were transported to the north to work as soldiers and domestic workers (Wright, 2007 pp76-81). Conditions Leading to the Berlin Conference The rich gold deposits and success of the Trans-Saharan trade attracted the attention of Europeans and in the 15th century, Portuguese traders opened new trade routes along the West African coast that had rich gold deposits (Wright, 2007 p 137). Some of the earliest prominent Portuguese explorers included Henry the navigator and Vasco de Gama who sailed and opened new trade routes around the African coast in the fifteenth century. In the following century, other European countries including Britain, Belgium, France and Holland began undertaking exploration of the interior African frontier, in search of raw materials for their upcoming industries, cheap labor and precious metals (Pakenham, 1992). In the mid 1870, Henry Morton successfully completed the Congo River basin expedition that had remained the last unchartered frontier in Africa (Emerson, 1979). Henry Morton was later appointed by King Leopold II of Belgium as an envoy to Congo that eventually became Congo Free State, a Belgian colony (Emerson, 1979 p69). In central Africa, France moved to the western part of the Congo basin and established Brazzaville in 1881. Great Britain conquered and occupied the Ottoman Empire in Egypt that ruled Sudan and the Somaliland. Germany declared territorial ownership of Namibia, Cameroon, and Togo while Italy claimed Eritrea in the horn of Africa in 1882 (Koponen, 1993 p124). The scramble for more African colonies generated intense competition among the European powers leading to violent conflicts and the need to have a more organized criterion for partitioning Africa became apparent. Germany had become an influential European power and other countries, including France and Britain were aggressively seeking new colonies to assert their power in Europe. In view of the emerging power changes in Europe, Germany was determined to maintain its leading influence in Europe. Therefore, it was important to formulate a reasonable formula of partitioning African continent among the competing European powers to avoid the risk of conflict that would threaten Germany influence in Europe and the globe (Koponen, 1993, pp 129-133). The Berlin Conference At the request of Portugal, the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck invited leaders of fourteen European countries with territorial interests in Africa, and the United States for a conference in Berlin in 1884 (Collins, 1969 p72). The major European countries in the conference included France, Great Britain, Portugal and Germany that had the greatest control of the African continent at the time of the conference. According to Pakenham (1992), France had occupied much of west and northern African countries, including Tunisia, Algeria, Senegal southern gulf of Guinea and Madagascar. Great Britain occupied Northeastern Africa, which included Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and Uganda. In addition, southern Africa, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria and Gambia were British colonies. Tanganyika, Namibia and Cameroon territories were under German control while Mozambique and Angola were Portuguese colonies (Pakenham, 1992 pp 142-147) The Berlin conference drafted the General Act that passed six resolutions concerning the partitioning of Africa. These included enhancing the freedom of trade in the Congo basin, confirmation of the abolishment of slave trade and maintaining neutrality in the territories along the Congo basin. Moreover, the general act set the rules for navigation of the Congo and Niger rivers in addition to establishing regulations for future occupation of the African continent (Collins, 1969 pp 85-89). The last resolution at the conference established the “principle of effectivity”, which declared that the European powers could declare ownership of their colonies only when the colony in question was under utilization and administration of the colonial power (Emerson, 1979 p 49). The principle of effectivity prevented the colonial powers from just pronouncing particular colony as their own. Another power was allowed to take over such colonies that remained unutilized and ungoverned by the purported owner. The Scramble for African Colonies During the conference, Portugal presented a claim over the territory between Angola and Mozambique a region that includes the current Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi and it was approved by the members. The presentation referred as the “pink map” was disputed five years later by Great Britain and consequently, Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe became part of the British colony (Pakenham, 1992 pp217). Territorial boundaries in Africa were set among other European powers present. The European powers retained much of their earlier colonies that they had claimed before the conference. France took control of much of the central African countries around the Sahara desert, West Africa and Northern Africa states including Morocco. This region became the French West Africa that included Gabon and Lake Chad basin (Pakenham 1992). Great Britain took control of the region along the river Nile basin and southern Africa in addition to countries on the southern part of West Africa, including Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone. At the end of the Berlin conference in 1885, all African countries were under European occupation except Liberia that was established by the United States to host returned slaves. Ethiopia later became independent after the defeat of Italy in 1889-1896 Italo-Abyssinian war (Collins, 1969, p 93) Political, Economic and Social Cultural Impacts of Berlin Conference in Africa The Berlin conference, established the current geopolitical configuration of the current African continent. Immediately after the conference, the European powers embarked on exerting their authority over the new colonies under the principle of effectivity. Partitioning resulted into colonization of the African continent that transformed its economic, social and political environment profoundly. According to Michalopoulos and Papaioannou (2011), the scramble for African natural resources to support the growing industries in Europe was the main motivation for colonization. The partitioning of Africa into distinct territories created boundaries that established the present African countries. To effectively govern and exploit natural resources in Africa, European powers used brutal force to overpower the existing African social structures into submission (Emerson, 1979). This resulted to disruption of a wide variety of African cultures and traditions, as the powers sought to assimilate Africans into the European culture. Europeans introduced new governance structures that exist up to date without considering the natives’ social and political systems. To enhance governance, colonialist used divide and rule method to break down the social harmony that existed between different African communities. This created ethnic tensions and suspicions a major cause of wars and instability in most African countries presently (Koponen, 1993, p 129). Economically, Africans were displaced from their rich agricultural lands and compelled to work in the plantations. In regions with rich mineral deposits such as South Africa and Congo, Africans were displaced from their settlements and forced to work in the mines for a pittance. The traditional African economic activities such as subsistence farming, foraging, hunting and gathering were disrupted by European capitalism. The postcolonial Africa continues experiencing the effects of colonialism up to date (Pakenham, 1992 pp 63-68). The colonies inherited political, social and economic policies from the colonial powers that have undermined and enhanced development in the same measures. Conclusion Africa had attracted European settlers even before the Berlin conference took place in 1884-1885. The industrial revolution in Europe had created an increasing demand for raw materials and market for the new products and therefore, Africa promised an attractive source of raw materials and market for the Europeans. In addition, industrialization caused major power changes in Europe and the countries resorted to imperialism in order to enhance their influence in the continent. Berlin conference provided an opportunity for the European countries to colonize Africa formally in order to exploit its natural resources. The partitioning and subsequent sharing of African colonies reduced the tension and potential conflicts between the competing powers. Colonization in Africa established the current geographical boundaries and it introduced new political, economic and social structures. These changes continue affecting the continent negatively, leading to underdevelopment and widespread political instability. Annotated bibliography Collins, R. O. (Ed.). (1969). The Partition of Africa: Illusion or Necessity. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This book is part of a series focusing on individual historical issues, providing a variation of essays covering multiple aspects of the issue at hand. This collection addresses the motives and involvement of European entities in the colonization of Africa. The book covers Belgium, Germany, Italy, Britain, France, and the results of their division of land. Emerson, B. (1979). Leopold II of the Belgians: King of Colonialism. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. This is a biography of Leopold II, from his birth and upbringing to his decline and death. Much of the book focuses on his involvement in the European colonization of Africa and his acquisition and rule over the Congo Free State. Koponen, J. (1993). The partition for Africa: A scramble for a mirage? Nordic Journal of African Studies, 2(1): pp117-135. In this journal article, Koponen, a historian at university of Helsinki in Finland investigates the causes of European partition of African continent in the nineteenth century. The author examines capitalism and imperialism in Europe in addition to the industrialization and the power rivalry in European continent. Koponen attributes the aforementioned factors to the partitioning of African continent and the subsequent colonization. He argues that the scramble for Africa was mainly driven by expectations of finding economic resources with intention of enhancing their economic power in Europe. Michalopoulos, S., & Papaioannou, E. (2011). The Long-Run Effects of the Scramble for Africa. Retrieved on October 3, 2011 from Dartmouth College, Economics Department: http://www. dartmouth.edu/~elias/scramble_africa_stelios_elias.pdf In this research paper, Michalopoulos and Papaioannou examine the long lasting effects of colonialism on African culture and economy. They study the borders drawn at the Berlin Conference and the ethnic groups affected, illustrating the disregard with which European powers acted. A correlation is drawn between the groups impacted by the borders and those experiencing post-independence conflict. Furthermore, the researchers find that economic developments in those same areas were negatively affected. Pakenham, T. (1992). The scramble for Africa: White man’s conquest of the dark continent from 1876-1912. New York, NY: Avon Books. Pakenham, a reputable historian and author investigates the social, political and economic state of Africa before colonization and the effects of the white man on the lives of Africans during colonization. Before the scramble for Africa, Pakenham observes that Africa had established its own political systems that were brutally suppressed by the colonial powers. The author documents the various native rulers who initially resisted colonial occupation but were brutally murdered by colonial powers. In particular, Pakenham investigates brutality meted by six colonial powers, namely Britain, Germany, Italy, Portugal, France and Belgium on Africans in this book. Wright, J. (2007). The trans-Saharan slave trade. Oxford: Routledge. Wright, an experienced historian and explorer investigates trans-Saharan trade slave trade in Africa in this book. By making visits along the ancient trade routes in Sahara and the Mediterranean countries in the Maghreb and extensive research on the early African trade, Wright makes incisive findings about the early economic, social and political organization in Africa. He notes that during early times, Africans relied on barter trade and they led subsistence, life as foragers, hunters and gatherers. The coming of Arabs altered the natives’ social economic structure, through slave trade. Read More