The Scope, Potential and Benefits of Urban Farming for the World in General and the US - Research Paper Example

of the of the Teacher Scope, Potential and Benefits of Urban Farming and its Importance to Local communities: A StudyFocusing on the US Situation Introduction Urban farming is a concept that has won the fancy as well as attention of many in the modern era of climate change, and the general fading of greenery around human settlements. In human history, there has never been a time like this when humans have come so close to severing their bonds with nature in the mad race of so-called progress and development. The consequence of the agrarian human settlements gradually turning away from this productive sector and engaging with industrial and commercial activities that do not directly maintain a link with nature, have been manifold. The food production has been declining; earth has been becoming a hotter place without adequate green cover; the quality of food available for people in general has been decreasing; and as more leisure got created, more and more human beings have been detached from physical labour resulting in lack of exercise and the emergence of new kinds of life style related diseases. These are only a few of the many problems faced by humans as they got distanced from nature and agriculture. The detachment from nature has thus kickstarted a process of decline in quality of life caused by its impact on food security, employment, carbon fixation, oxygen availability, mental happiness, relaxation, physical exercise, peace of mind received from nature, aesthetic appeal, fresh food, food traceability, pollution control, waste utilization, waste water utilization, waste-to-energy conversion, space availability and optimal utilization of available space. Pearson has categorised the benefits of urban farming into three, namely, “social, economic, and environmental goods and services” (3). This categorization implies that the scope, potential and benefits of urban farming spans across different facets of human life and civilization. Mougeot has observed that in the US, there is a clear distinction between the north and the south with respect to farming (1). He (Mougeot) said, in North, there is a clear separation between urban and rural life while in South, one can hear “goats bleating, cattle lowing, and as the city wakes, the cries of street vendors offering fresh produce, bread and othe prepared food” (1). It can be said, the north and south represent two growth stages in human civilization but it is more important to note that in Southern cities, urban agriculture “plays a significant role in providing a measure of food security and income for a rapidly increasing urban population” (2). It has to be remembered that urban farming is not a newly introduced concept to cities but has been existing in all cities as vestiges of rural life until the development bandwagon erased it completely at least from the mega-cities. In this context, this paper envisages finding out the scope, potential and benefits of urban farming for the world in general and the US in particular. This investigation is carried out keeping in mind, urban agriculture is not a monolithic concept but include: Residual, often peri-urban broadacre farmland, small ‘community gardens’, personally managed allotments, home gardens, portions of parks that were previously planted entirely with amenity species, fruit trees along roadside reserves, greenhouses, green roofs and green walls (Pearson, 3). In the backdrop of the huge “knowledge gap” that exists regarding the potential, methods and benefits of urban farming, this study envisages preparing a knowledge database on different aspects of the same (Pearson, Pearson, and Pearson, 9). Review of Literature The early ideas on urban farming as we know it was initiated during the era of New Deal, when “homesteads were organized as examples of how the country could benefit from a proliferation of semirural neighborhoods, where part-time farming on inexpensive but desirable land would encourage uplifting social functions and help establish a better way of life” (Carriker, 3). These homesteads “combined the benefits of urban and rural living” by incorporating farming and related activities (Carriker, 3). Though this project has now become history, the “neighborhoods still exist” (Carriker, 4). American history’s most important period for urban farming has been the years of the Great Depression and in those days, “city lands were made available to the unemployed and the impoverished by the Work Projects Administration; nearly 5000 gardens on 700 acres were cultivated in New York city through this programme” (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 22). It is a fact that urban farming cannot fill the gap in food production in the world or feed millions (Winne, p.XII). But they represent a value system that stands for nature, good food, and agriculture. This is why small agricultural patches have survived even in mega-cities like New York and Seattle (Marty, 5). The modern trends have been that “school gardens are being linked with hands-on science classes and changing what's served in the cafeterias” (Marty, 5). It is also observed that “for-profit farms are taking advantage of a trend toward purchasing locally produced food at farmers' markets and still more nonprofit urban farms are providing job training and social services” (Marty, 5). All these new developments suggest a strong movement for urban farming evolving. Food security Though it has already been stated that urban farming is no answer to food security problem in the world, there have been many examples where urban farming contributed greatly to food security. For example in nairobi, in Kenya, there are many areas where poor people live and meet their subsistence from farming (Njogu, 21-33). In Lima, in Peru also, urban farming has become the livelihood of many poor people (Villavicencio, 49-70). The World Food Summit that was held in Rome in 1996 had defined food security “as a state when all people, at all times, have both the physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and health life” (qtd. in Mkwambisi, 92). According to FAO figures, around “800 million people are unable to obtain an adequate and secure supply of food year round” (qtd. in Mkwambisi, 91). Urban agriculture has been accepted as “one strategy where recent research suggests that food insecurity could be tackled” (Mkwambisi, 91). Especially in developing and under-developed nations, urban farming has been acknowledged as “a critical 'food insurance' policy for poor urban households” (Mkwambisi, 91). It is also a crucial source of “household nutrition as it provides a source of fresh, locally grown crops that meets the micronutrient requirements in poor household's diets” (qtd. in Mkwambisi, 91). Urban agriculture can also be viewed as an additional income source for low-income families in cities and suburbs (Mkwambisi, 91). Human civilization has reached a point where “the majority of the world’s population now live in cities, and this proportion and the size of the cities themselves, will increase dramatically over the next 20 years” (Pearson, 3). Hence it is important that agriculture gets sufficient space in urban life or the world will be in for a serious food crisis. Urban farming is also important to the poor people in the sense that “the impact of diminishing green space or urban food system failure will hurt society’s poor first and hardest” (Pearson, 3). Employment Urban farming is also an important employment source for at least the city dwellers of developing nations (deBon, Parrot and Moustier, 620). It has been observed that “80% of families in Liberville (Gabon), 68% of urban dwellers in six Tanzanian cities, 45% in Lusaka (Zambia), 37% in Maputo (Mozambique), 36% in Quagadougou (Burkina Faso), and 35% in Yaounde (Cameroon) are involved in urban agriculture” (deBon, Parrot and Moustier, 621). This is an indication that urban agriculture is an important income generating activity, especially for the lower-income groups of the society. Hence, urban agriculture has a social importance in relation with the uplift of the lower economic stratum of the society. Physical exercise Humans invented technology and through technology, attained leisure. But a major section of the society now faces the problem of not knowing what to do with their leisure. The result is obesity, and accompanying diseases. The detachment from physical labour was caused through a majority of people moving away from agricultural production sector and migrating to other areas of economy including industry, commerce and service sectors. Urban agriculture in this context can be viewed as an opportunity for the urban dweller, who mostly inhabit flats and similar congested spaces, to do physical exercise in a meaningful manner. This is especially so for people employed in job areas where physical exertion is not at all necessary, like those who work on computers or stock exchange. Tracey has listed “eight reasons to start urban agriculture at home”, wherein comes “physical, mental, spiritual exercise” as one item in the list (23). Green space Urban farming has to be viewed from the angle of conservation of green spaces within cities (Pearson, 3). The benefits of the green space created by urban farming have been categorised as “temporal, spatial and social” (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 20). When approached from a historical perspective, first conscious effort towards building urban green spaces was initiated with the formation of urban gardens (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 20). The mythical hanging gardens of Babylon points to how deep in human history the notion of an urban green space exists (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 20). Peace of mind and aesthetic appeal The positive influence of urban agriculture on “landscape aesthetics, air and water” has been duly acknowledged (Pearson, 3). Calling urban farming an “alternative economic model”, Tracey has said, the benefits of urban farming have to be measured based on human happiness index rather than gross domestic product (217). Humans being closely linked mentally and spiritually to the moods of nature, and keeping an affinity for greenery aesthetically, can feel mental peace and happiness through urban agriculture amidst the sparse vegetation that exists in cities. The human affinity towards open spaces can also be fulfilled through growing green patches inside the cities. Pollution control It is a known fact that trees can reduce pollution and smog (Tracey, 153). Greenspaces can absorb pollutants and release oxygen gas (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 21). An example of this beneficial role is cited below: In 1981 when (Los Angeles) city officials were worried about air pollution affecting athletes at the upcoming 1984 Olympic Games, they estimated that one million additional trees would be needed to make a difference (Tracey, 188). Yet another inspiring example has been that of West Oakland where a volunteer group named City Slicker Farms changed the reputation of city from a polluted place to an area where fresh food was available, through urban farming (Tracey, 194). When locally grown food becomes available in cities through urban farming, an advantage is that the traceability of the food gets increased. This is an important step towards making safe food available to all. Waste utilization Urban agriculture can be viewed as a very effective activity through which urban waste can be converted as energy and utilized (Mougeot, 55). It is stated, “urban agriculture, represents a principal market for the productive use of much of this organic material”, that is, domestic waste (Mougeot, 55). Biogas production, as an agriculture-related activity can also be adopted for this purpose (Mougeot, 55). Mougeot has called urban farmers, the “ideal reusers of waste close to the source points” thus reducing pollution by it (55). Waste water utilization The use of grey water, that is, used domestic waste water, has been proven to be successful in urban farming, in Jordan (Mougeot, 44). The result has been that: Initial water savings are estimated to be at least 15%, and households are using the recycled water to increase crops such as eggplants, herbs, and olives. The use of grey water in market gardens is reported to have increased household incomes by anywhere from 10% to 40% (Mougeot, 45). Space utilization Food and Agricultural Organization has developed a framework to evaluate the sustainability of urban farming and this has as its core, the idea of “sustainable land management” (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 9). Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz have drawn attention to the “use-value” and “non-use value” of space and suggested that “use value” relates to the “economic functions” of a space while non-use value refers to its “intangible functions” (23). Ecological functions apart, the “intangible functions” include “aesthetic pleasure, psychological well-being, social interaction, etc.” (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 23). Another classification based on the functions of urban greenspace offered by Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz include: (a) ecological values: intrinsic natural value, genetic diversity value, life-support value; (b) economic values: market value; (c) social values: recreational value, aesthetic value, cultural symbolization value, historical value, character-building value, therapeutic value, social interaction value, substitution value; (d) planning values: instrumental/structural value, synergetic and competitive value, (e) multidimensional values: scientific value, policy value (23). Carbon fixation Urban farming contributes to the reduction of global warming and climate change through “sequestration of soil carbon” (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 15). This is in the context that “carbon dioxide concentrations and air temperatures are commonly higher in cities” (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 88). The distance a particular food item travels adds to its carbon footprint and when food for the city dwellers is grown in cities themselves, the carbon footprint of food is reduced (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 121). Urban agriculture makes food production to happen in the vicinity of population centres and thus presents a model to the “carbon constrained world” (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 73). Successful models Netherlands is a notable example of successful urban farming with its “250,000 community and allotment gardens” (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 22). A study carried out by Amstrong (2000) on urban agriculture in New York showed that “the social value of urban greenspace is not negligible” (qtd. in Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 22). London city is yet another example where “around 30,000 active allotment holders (do) gardening on 831 ha of land, of which 111 ha are in inner London” (Leeuwen, Nijkamp and Vaz, 22). Schumann has drawn attention to the remarkable urban farming activities going on in Detroit and stated, this former motor city that was facing an economic break down, is getting revived through effective urban farming activities (3). Johnson has also pointed out, “how Detroit is full to bursting with people and groups committed to expanding” gardens and farms into vacant spaces (73-74). An example has been the Garden Resource Program Collaborative which is a network of different groups involved with farming activity in the city (Johnson, 74). There are all kinds of experiments going on in Detroit in the field of urban farming and some examples are, the Detroit Black Community Food Security Network, “potato patch plans”, Farm-a-lot program, and the Fair Food Network, to name a few (Johnson, 74-76). Urban community gardening has also been a grand success in Detroit (Nordahl, 8). The Michigan state has decided to set up a “100-acre $ 100-million urban-farming research centre in Detroit (Gallagher). It is reported, the “research efforts would include “vertical agriculture,” in which food is grown inside multi-story buildings, and innovative ways to produce energy and conserve water in food production” (Gallagher). In Los Angeles, a Food Policy Council has been established and the mission statement of the Council says that: The LAFPC is a collaborative network working to make Southern California a good food region for everyone- where food is healthy, affordable, fair and sustainable. Through policy creation and cooperative relationships, its goals are to reduce hunger, improve public health, increase equity in our communities, create good jobs, stimulate local economic activity, and foster environmental stewardship (“Los Angeles Food Policy Council: Mission”). Brian Clark Howard in National Geographic Magazine has observed, the American cities including New York and Chicago were “growing a green future” through urban farming. The article said: An early example is the rooftop garden on the Inter Continental New York Barclay Hotel, which includes an apiary. The Midtown bees produce honey used in the hotel's kitchen, and they fly to pollinate plants as far as five miles away (Howard). In Chicago, the greening of public spaces has been an ongoing municipality-sponsored drive (Nordahl, 7). As the city became green, it also began to increase its revenue from tourism (Nordahl, 7). The thousands of trees planted here also became shelter to many birds and small animals (Nordahl, 7). Gender and Urban Farming Seymoar, Ballantyne and Pearson have focused on the gender dimension of urban farming and observed, urban farming projects were “particularly successful in engaging and empowering women to take the initiative and responsibility in both urban greening initiatives and livelihood development” (27). This is so because women have always been the leaders in subsistence agriculture and this activity of theirs have been instrumental in poverty alleviation (Seymoar, Ballantyne and Pearson, 27). Communities Pearson has observed that urban farming has a “central role in community development” and it has the ability to “provide unique benefits” (3). A less realised fact is that: Urban agriculture is a stimulus for political and social strength as it is increasingly around urban farming that many poor urban agriculturalists organize (and) farmer organizations are often the way that those practising urban agriculture access political strength (Redwood, 6). This is a very important signal that in future, the socio-political equations are bound to change in favour of green politics and political power will rest with those who command the production of food and conservation of nature. Future When it comes to the future of urban farming, Pearson has said that the: Challenge involves governance, legal issues and the question of how to create sustainable market economies that, frankly, have rarely been achieved, other than within underemployed, near-subsistence communities or with niche-branded value-added exceptions where, the food, wine and recreation are bundled (3). Pearson has also put forth four suggestion to develop urban farming for the future generations and they are, conserve open spaces that are there inside cities, legally make it acceptable that agriculture is a “legitimate land use” and even give such land legal protection, develop and support “food markets” and form “food policy councils to coordinate municipal responses to urban food security” (Pearson, 4). The future directions for urban farming set forth by Pearson, Pearson and Pearson have been, (i) strategically identifying principles of sustainable urban agriculture that help policy makers to redesign resilient cities, e.g., using flood-prone areas for food and employment, and (ii) operationally trialing innovative institutional mechanisms, e.g., differential land taxes to support sustainable urban agriculture or payments for environmental services provided by urban agriculture such as carbon sequestration (7). Methods Carpenter and Rosenthal have delineated different methods of urban farming. Kitchen gardens and community-supported agriculture could be two easy and effective methods for urban farming (Tracey, 24-27, 137). The vacant city spaces can also be utilized (Tracey, 152). Public orchards, urban forest, cooperative farming, etc. can also be used as effective modes of urban farming (Tracey, 188-215). Nordahl, for example, has illustrated Potential According to a UNDP assessment, urban farming “produces between 15 and 20 percent of the world’s food,” which is not at all a negligible figure (qtd. in Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 7). As the world will be having more and more urbanization in the future also, this percentage will further have to be consciously increased to address the looming food security threat. Though it is evident that urban farming is no answer to all food security challenges, the truth is that “cities cannot be segregated from agricultural policy development as they are largely the drivers of demand in the sector” (Redwood, 6). It thus becomes the moral responsibility of the city dwellers to give at least a portion of what they take as food, from nature, through whatever possible farming activity. Urban farming as it exists now is a recreation for the city dwellers of the developed world and it is livelihood, food security and nutrition security for the city dwellers of the developing world (Pearson, Pearson and Pearson, 7). This divide is slowly phasing out as rural areas also develop into cities and city dwellers of the developed world find out that even their purchasing power cannot buy safe and nutritious food. It is this unification of the purpose and definition of urban farming for the rural and urban people equally that will show the path for future action. As a result, urban farming is bound to become the most influential and politically powerful vocation of the future world. Works Cited Carriker, Robert M., Urban Farming in the West: A New Deal Experiment in the Subsistence Homesteads, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 2010. Print. deBon, Hubert, Parrot, Laurent, and Moustier, Paule, “Sustainable Urban Agriculture in Developing Countries: A Review”, In Sustainable Agriculture: Volume 1, Eds. Eric Lichtfouse, Mireille Navarrete, Philippe Debaeke, Souchere Veronique and Caroline Alberola, Berlin: Springer, 2009. Print. Gallagher, John, “Michigan State Proposes 100-acre, $ 100-million Urban- farming Research Centre in Detroit”, Detroit Free Press, 13 April 2012. web. 30 November 2012, http://www.freep.com/article/20120413/NEWS01/120413045/Michigan- State-proposes-100-acre-100-million-urban-farming-research-center-in- Detroit Howard, Brian Clark, “Urban Farming is Growing a Green Future”, National Geographic, n.d. web. 28 November 2012, http://environment.nationalgeographic.co.in/environment/photos/urban- farming/ Johnson, Lorraine, City Farmer: Adventures in Urban Food Growing, Kent: Greystone Books, 2011. Print. Leeuwen, Eveline Van, Nijkamp, Peter, and Vaz, Teresa de Norohna, “The Multifunctional Use of Urban Greenspace”, In Urban Agriculture: Diverse Activities and Benefits for City Society, Ed. Craig J. Pearson, Sarah Pilgrim and Jules N. Pretty. Oxford: Earthscan, 2010. Print. “Los Angeles Food Policy Council: Mission”, goodfoodla. Food Policy Council, n.d. web. 28 November 2012, http://goodfoodla.org/about_page1.php Marty, Edwin, “Introduction”, In Breaking Through Concrete: Building an Urban Farm Revival, Ed. David Hanson, Edwin Marty and Michael Hanson, California: University of California Press, 2012. Print. Mkwambisi, David Dalison, “Urban Agriculture and Food Security in Lilongwe and Blantyre, Malawi”, In Agriculture in Urban Planning: Generating Livelihoods and Food Security, Ed. Mark Redwood, Oxford: Earthscan, 2012. Print. Mougeot, Luc J.A., Growing Better Cities: Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Development, Canada: IDRC, 2006. Print. Njogu, Eunice Wambui, “Household Food Security Among Urban Farmers in Nairobi, Kenya”, In Agriculture in Urban Planning: Generating Livelihoods and Food Security, Ed. Mark Redwood, Oxford: Earthscan, 2012. Print. Nordahl, Darrin, Public Produce: The New Urban Agriculture, Washington D.C.: Island Press, 2009. Print. Pearson, Craig J., “Guest Editorial: Challenging, Multidimensional Agriculture in Cities”, In Urban Agriculture: Diverse Activities and Benefits for City Society, Ed. Craig J. Pearson, Sarah Pilgrim and Jules N. Pretty. Oxford: Earthscan, 2010. Print. Pearson, Leonie J., Pearson, Linda and Pearson, Craig J., “Sustainable Urban Agriculture: Stocktake and Opportunities”, In Urban Agriculture: Diverse Activities and Benefits for City Society, Ed. Craig J. Pearson, Sarah Pilgrim and Jules N. Pretty. Oxford: Earthscan, 2010. Print. Redwood, Mark., “Commentary: Food Price Volatility and the Urban Poor”, In Urban Agriculture: Diverse Activities and Benefits for City Society, Ed. Craig J. Pearson, Sarah Pilgrim and Jules N. Pretty. Oxford: Earthscan, 2010. Print. Schumann, Stefanie, Urban Farming in Detroit: Turning the Motor City into Farm City?, Berlin: GRIN Verlag, 2011. Print. Seymoar, Nola-Kate, Ballantyne, Elizabeth, and Pearson, Craig J., “Empowering Residents and Improving Governance in Low Income Communities through Urban Greening”, In Urban Agriculture: Diverse Activities and Benefits for City Society, Ed. Craig J. Pearson, Sarah Pilgrim and Jules N. Pretty. Oxford: Earthscan, 2010. Print. Tracey, David, Urban Agriculture: Ideas and Designs for the New Food Revolution, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2011. Print. Winne, Mark., “Foreword”, In Breaking Through Concrete: Building an Urban Farm Revival, Ed. David Hanson, Edwin Marty and Michael Hanson, California: University of California Press, 2012. Print. Read More