Uranium Mining in Western United States and its Effects - Research Paper Example

? Uranium Mining in Western United s and its Effects Task: Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................3 Geography of the Western US...................................................................................4 Uranium mining...........................................................................................................5 Effects of uranium mining...............................................................................7 Geological effects...........................................................................................8 Social cultural effects....................................................................................10 Health effects................................................................................................11 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................13 Abstract This research paper examines mining of uranium in the western united state. It seeks to reveal the multi faceted effects of uranium mining in the United States. Uranium Mining in the US started early in the 1898. The element, uranium, occurred in ores mined for extraction of other minerals, especially carnonite. After the First World War and during the second war, uranium received a lot interest as an element. This write up follows the development of uranium mining as a by-product, to the exhaustive processing of uranium containing ores in search of uranium in later years. Uranium received such great interest because of its properties. Uranium decays with the release of energy and other particles; this makes it useful in nuclear weaponry and in production of electricity. Uranium was pursued for both reasons to a varied degree. This research paper investigates the circumstances that led to the uranium rush. The mining of uranium has numerous effects to both human beings and the environment. The writer of this paper reviews the chronological but enduring effects of uranium mining in the western United States. It investigates the ecological, social-cultural and health effects of uranium mining in the western states. The importance of uranium and the role it has played in the development of the US cannot be belittled. Nevertheless, the lack of due care in the mining and processing of uranium ore resulted to varied adverse effects. Some of these effects have been around for several decades and are not yet over. Due to the long half-life of uranium, thorium and radon, their deposits take millions of years to reduce to safe levels. Additionally, the presence of a water-soluble uranium isotope made it easy for the spread of radionuclides from the mining districts to other states. Geography of western United States Western US covers the greater half of the country. It is divided into pacific states, west coast, mountain states, western Texas, and the mid west. The first group includes Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington while the west coast refers to California, Oregon, and Washington. The mountain states include Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. The Midwest includes Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota among others. (Energy-net) The western region features a wealthy but intricate tectonic history. This includes volcanoes, extension and compression. The Colorado flat terrain is at the centre of this region. The deformed Rocky Mountains (north), southern Rocky Mountains (northeast), Rio Grande rift (east), and the basin and range (south and west) surround the plateau. The plateau consists of gently tilted blocks of monoclines (Fagbola 2007, p. 1-8). The Colorado plateau extends to about 130,000 square miles. It is in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Arizona. Precambrian and metamorphic rocks form the basement of the plateau. Colorado’s basic topography can be demarcated threefold. The eastern part consisting of plains, the central section featuring high mountains and the western part, which is messa, land. The basic river systems are the south Platte, Arkansas and Rio Grande. All the rivers in this river system flow towards the Gulf of Mexico (Laine, Laine & Peterson 2007, P. 452-456). Uranium mining The ore from which uranium is extracted occurs in the ground. Uranium exists in exceedingly minute concentrations. Therefore, its mining requires a lot of earth moving. The method used is open-pit mining or ISL. Very few nations in the world mine uranium because of the rarity of uranium deposits and because of the cost of the process of extraction. Canada, Australia and Kazakhstan, are the largest producers accounting for over sixty percent of the sum global production. Several other countries have a production of over a thousand tonnes per year including the United States. Uranium mining in the U.S started in Colorado during the Second World War. The country needed uranium for the making of bombs. This project became the Manhattan project. A large percentage of uranium used in the Manhattan project came from Africa and Canada. Eventually, numerous mines sprung up in the United States. These mines were largely in Arizona and Colorado. Uranium mining later extended to northwestern New Mexico and the gas hills uranium district in Riverton Wyoming. In the late 1950s, the US increased its uranium production for the production of arsenals. Each kg of plutonium made required one million kilograms of uranium ore from the ground (Diane 1995, p. 10-12). Because of this, swell in uranium need, more mines sprung up, and the depths of the already existing ones amplified drastically and in several instances tripled. (Roger, 2011) At the end of the Second World War, atomic energy regulatory body replaced the Manhattan project. The regulatory commission started a government funded mineral quest. It constructed roads into prospective areas and promised large bonuses for new mines with high-grade ore. Apart from setting of minimum prices, the commission also helped prospectors to construct mills, transport ores and gave information on potential areas. These incentives invited a lot of investment in the mining and processing of uranium. Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico, witnessed a sharp rise in prospectors. By mid 1950s, there were close to a thousand mines in Colorado. Utah also contributed extensively in the production of uranium. The government started many buying stations and mills. After the government had acquired adequate reserves, they ceased trade in 1970. Nevertheless private sales of the ore continued triggering another rush. In the 1980s, the regulatory body decommissioned many of mines. Decommissioning is the process of dismantling of nuclear reactors and disposal of nuclear waste following shutdown. The actual decommissioning can delay due to high toxin levels. In such cases, sediments cover the waste leaving it to decay until radioactivity levels have reduced to safe levels (Thomas & Goudie 2000, P.122). Decommissioning also includes cleaning of expansive locations to reduce the amount of radionuclides to pre mining levels (CSU 1999, P. 681-638). Currently, Canada and Australia account for over forty percent of global uranium production. The US contributes four percent to the global production. Much of this comes from Wyoming. There are three possible ways to mine Uranium. It can be produced from surface mining, underground mining or ISL techniques (NRC 2011, P.20-28). (Ranking America) In surface mining, the extraction of the ore is by mechanical means like drilling and blasting. Transportation of the resultant ore to the surface follows. At the surface, milling of the ore to a fine dust occurs. The open cast method involves a lot of earth moving, due to the low concentrations of uranium in rocks. For example, preparing one tonne of uranium requires one thousand tonnes of radioactive material. Treatment of the ground ore with an acid follows. This separates about ninety percent of uranium from the rock. Massive tanks are used to collect the resulting slurry or tailing. In ISL, mining involves drilling of wells. These wells are gateways for the introduction of a solution used in leaching uranium out of the rock. Miners pump the resulting solution and treat it to produce the uranium ore. By 2006, about ninety percent of all US uranium production occurred in ISL facilities. Effects of uranium mining The environment constitutes of interdependent systems, which include both, biotic and physical components. The biotic components include both plants and animals, while non-biotic components include land, hydro resources, social and cultural aspects. Therefore, effects are those characteristics that give evidence to alterations of the existing systems both short term and long term. Each mill and site produces by products after the utilization of resources and reagents in the production of target good. These resources include energy water and land. Other effluents take the nature of aero, hydro and ground discharges. The wastes can be radiological or non-radiological, due to the nature of uranium. In either case, the impacts of these wastes in humans, the environment and other related forms of existence, is profound. Department of energy records showed that, between 1947 and 1998, the uranium industry explored over 5300 properties for uranium. Actual mining occurred in almost 4000 properties. By 1970, 34 commercial mills had produced uranium concentrates for delivery under federal contracts. Additionally, many buying stations, pilot plants, concentrators, solution mining and leaching facilities were in operation in support of the federal programs. By 1998, almost a hundred facilities were functional (IAE 2002, p. 273). Geological effects Mining and milling of uranium ore requires the disruption of the crust. Given the magnitude of the uranium-mining project in the United States, it is easy to envision the amount of ground disruption and earth moving that took place. Mining pushed the overburden, mostly eighty feet from the surface, don the slopes. This soil eventually eroded away, and no amount of reclamation will ever restore it. This soil contained traces of radioactive materials, meaning that with its dispersal radioactive residues spread in the region. Uranium has a long half-life. As a result, it accumulates in the environment, both physical and biotic, until it reaches a toxic level. The growth of a mine complex results in devastating changes. Major changes occur to local site topography, hydrology and ecology (Dolan & Hobbs 2008, p. 5). By 1975, records show that more than 100 million tonnes of uranium tailings had already been accumulated in the western United States. For example, in Colorado there were two hills near the town of Durango. These two hills had their origin from 1.6 tonnes of tailings stacked over 200 feet from the ground and spread to a radius over 140 acres. The geological effects of the mines depend on various factors, including whether the mine is open pit, underground or ISL. A mine’s depth, mode of entry, levels and shafts also influence the accumulative effects. Native legal update (Open pit mine, Wyoming) Additionally, the expanse of the mine and other mining related facilities also determines the effect of mining. The amount of refuse and barren earth produced and the amount of redundant ore produced is another important determinants. Quantities of mine drainage discharge, location of waste collection site and method of treatment also have significance in the aftermath of the mine. Others include liners and capping used (IAE 2002, P. 17). The explosives used in mine blasting resulted in increased concentrations of nitrates and inorganic compounds in the mine effluence and underground water. Conversely, the use of ISL results in surface and subversive metal contamination of water resource. Arguably, the greatest environmental hazard because of uranium in the west has been the contamination of water sources. Though uranium mining occurred in areas with low human population, the tailings produced have contaminated subversive water in all mining location. The solubility of uranium in non- neutral solutions makes it extremely easy to be trans-located miles away from the site. The presence and spread of the radio- active wastes from the mines have resulted in the destruction of the desert ecosystem characteristic of the west. The health of both plants and wildlife deteriorates on exposure to radiation. The result has been ecosystems than dons not sustain themselves (Kuletz 1998, p. 281). The physical destruction of the topographical layout of the land is irreversible. Flattening of hills and filling of valleys cannot be reversed by reclamation efforts. Though decommissioning of active sites may be carried out, the expanse of the affected area is extremely costly. Even when carried out, the areas may look better than before but maintain their level of toxicity if proper decommissioning did not occur. As a result, a lot of manpower resource along with time and fiscal resources have gone into the design, formulation and administration of policies. These policies help to mitigate environmental degradation. Social Cultural Effects Social cultural effects of uranium mining in the western US cannot be gainsaid. The Navajo people were the main inhabitants of most of the lands that had uranium deposits. These people lived traditional lives until the emergence of the second war. Many of the people agreed to help the federal government in its Nazi opposition, and many of them enlisted in the army. Unwittingly, they were at the centre of the Manhattan project. Between mid 1940s and late 1980s, their lands contributed thirteen million tons of uranium ore. The largest open mine uranium extraction occurred at the foot of mount Taylor, which was a sacred mountain to the Navajo people (Ward Churchill 2003, p. 194-200). With the development of mining, a vibrant economic atmosphere emerged. Violence emerged in a normally peaceful community. Hordes of Navajo youth engaged in the mining activities unawares of the dangers of radiation. Many of them died of uranium toxicology, and the remnants are still dying of cancer. The children of Navajo played in the pools of radioactive waste. Their parents constructed houses using contaminated soil. They were not warned of the dangers involved or in the least informed them of the existence of radioactivity. The Navajo people continue to live in toxic house without their knowledge (Brugge & Yazzie-Lewis 2007, p. 4-15). These disruptions of a people’s socio-cultural life can only be attributed to the mining of uranium in the region. An otherwise quiet community suffered due to other people’s need of an element they did not know. Because of the contamination of their environment, their ecosystem has changed significantly. The Navajos reared cattle. They grazed them in what are now expansive and deep excavations in their lands. Their lives could not remain the same and change became a necessity. From the conception of uranium mining, the Navajos became disposable. The short-lived proceeds of the creation of jobs became insignificant in comparison with the emergence of enduring health problems. In a suit that later emerged, the ruling favoured the government. The government cited for an invariable and continuous supply of uranium to meet urgent security duties and other nuclear energy uses. It is debatable whether the administration had any justification, but the effects of unmanaged mining activities, in the west, continue to follow even the modern generations (Ryan & Cousins 2009, p. 460). In 1979, a tailings reservoir at Church Rock mine broke. The result was a flow of highly toxic waste down the Rio Puerco. As a result, the people the Navajos could not sell their animal products to other markets. Their animals and plants had toxic contamination. To compound the economic loss, they also suffered discrimination and ridicule as contaminated people. Health effects Whether the mining uses open pits or ISL, the mining process has wastes. Open pit-mining results in heaps of toxic waste. In ISL, the leaching agent applied interacts variably with rocks. This leaves a particularly high probability for contamination of subversive hydro reservoirs. Additionally, not all the waste leaves the well, compounding toxicology. Irrespective of the method of extraction from the ground, there is always contamination. The refuse from the mines piled into heaps, most of them forming distinct hills. When the pile dried, randon-222 was periodically released into the air. Randon-222 is a radioactive gas, meaning that it further decays to other elements. One of the results of decay is another gas called polonium-214. The properties of polonium help in its deposition on the tissue of the human lung. With time, the element accumulates to toxic level. This inevitably leads to lung cancer (Wagner 1993, p. 219-222) The source of the Radon release from the waste piles is another element, thorium-230. It takes eighty thousand years for a mass of thorium to decay to half of its original weight. This means that radon can continue to be released more than a million years after the formation of the pile. This directly translates to more than one million years of health problems. Studies conducted during mining rush and shortly after, showed that five percent of the radon generated from the decay of thorium would escape as gas to the environment. Authorities then estimated with that rate, a typical pile of 250 acres would produce 200 health cases (Krieger & Sullivan 2001, p. 130). Dr.Hornung studied over four thousand uranium miners. The results showed that approximately eight percent died of lung cancer. In a study conducted by the national research council, analysed the assertion of adverse health effects of the Colorado uranium mines. The research noted that the boom did not lead to the proper administration of the mines. The study further noted that many of the miners had worked previously in other mines with the same ore without accounting of radon exposure progeny. There were no set standards for radon exposure (NRC 1999, p. 306-310). The problem of exposure to radiation is not unique to uranium miners. The uranium rush led to the opening of more than a thousand mines. The open pits have turned into reservoirs and animals drink from them. As one moves up the tropic levels, there is an accumulation of radioactive elements in the bodies of humans and other living organisms. Furthermore, the piles of uranium waste contained a water-soluble isotope of uranium. This means that a lot of radioactive material flowed away as runoff water across many states. Another way through which these materials moved was through winds. Winds have the capacity to carry radon gas many miles across states. Radon gas transported this way is still potentially harmful. Conclusion Before the war, the federal government had little interest in the region and people of the Colorado plateau, namely the Navajos. This changed after the rise in the demand of uranium both for military and civilian use. The rise in demand resulted in the mad rush for the exploration and mining of uranium ore. Monetary institutions funded this rush as corporations opened more and more mines. This meant more earth breaking and earth moving. The government also contributed to this rush by ensuring that prices were predictable. They also gave bonuses to encourage more production of uranium ore. This was as far as their concerns went. They did not follow up the effects of the radioactive wastes that were piled near the mines and mills. As a result, environmental degradation occurred without check. The nearby community suffered severely. The jobs they got could not compensate the effect of a lifetime of illnesses. They suffered loss of livelihoods; their produce could not be sold outside, yet they continued to receive the poorest health care services. Though the mining of uranium was extremely necessary, the destruction caused by the mining was not justifiable. Authorities did not practice due care to ensure minimal damage due to radioactive wastes. Though there have been efforts to clean up the wastes, numerous abandoned mines remain unfilled. These mines continue to affect the health of the nearby communities. Other states have also suffered the effects of radioactivity after radioactive elements find their way into those states. It is imperative that future explorations of any mineral be approached with caution. Environmental, social and health concerns should be extensively addressed. Existing policies and regulations should be observed. No amount of financial gain can compensate for a life of suffering. Such problems because of mining should not happen. Nations should also invest in sustainable development. An important perspective of sustainable is the use of sustainable sources of energy. Green energy does not have such aversive effects. Works Cited Brugge Doug andYazzie-Lewis Esther. The Navajo people and uranium mining. New Mexico: UNM Press, 2007. Churchill Ward. Perversions of Justice. Arkham: City length books, 2003. CSU. Tailings and mine waste. Oxford: Tailor & Francis, 1999. Diane publishing. Closing the Circle on the Splitting of the Atom. Pennsylvania: Diane Publishing, 1995. Dolan Andrew and Hobbs Joseph, World regional geography. London: Cengage Learning, 2008. Energy-net. Global impacts of uranium mining. N.d. http://www.energy-net.org/01NUKE/u-mining.htm Fagbola Olamide. Integrated study of basins in the four corners region. Texas: Pro Quest, 2007. IAEA. Environmental Activities in Uranium Mining and Milling: a Joint Report. Vienna: IAEA, 1999. IAEA. Nuclear Development Environmental Remediation. Paris: OECD publishing, 2002. Kuletz, Valerie. The Tainted Desert. New York: Routledge, 1998. Laina, Don, Barbara, Laine and Peterson Eric. Frommer’s Colorado. New Jersey: Frommer’s, 2007. National research council. Hidden Costs of Energy: Un-priced Consequences of Energy Production and Use. Washington: National Academies press, 2010. NRC. Health effects of exposure to radon. Washington: NAP, 1999. Ryan Catherine and Cousins Bradley. The sage international handbook of educational evaluation (London: Sage Publications, 2009). 460. Sullivan John and Krieger Gary. Clinical environmental health and toxic exposures. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001. Thomas David and Goudie Andrew. The dictionary of physical geography. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2000. Wagner Travis. In our backyard. New Jersey: John Willy & sons, 1993. Read More