Language and Power in Relation to Gender and Sexuality - Literature review Example

Language and power in relation to gender and sexuality Name of the Student: Name of the Instructor: Name of the course: Code of the course: Submission date: Language and power in relation to gender and sexuality Introduction Discourses into the inherent relationship between language and power have been ongoing for a long time. Different scholars have made extensive attempts to interrelate these variables both at the individual and collective levels as well as proposing diverse definitions for these two concepts in various disciplines of academia. However, for the purposes of this analysis, language is perceived as the system of communication, both in writing and speech which is used by persons of a specific country or area (Oxford advanced learners dictionary, 2011). On the other hand, power has been defined as the ability which is embedded in its holder to obtain obedience or compliance of other collectives or individuals to their will (Thomas et. al, 2004). In addition, developments in recent decades have seen the linkage of both of the above concepts mentioned above with the concepts of gender and sexuality. This has tended to elicit antagonistic schools of thought in regard to how language is used by either gender for various purposes. This fact is supported whereby different scholars, for instance, Herring (1993), Brownlow, Rosamon, & Parker (2003) and Colley et al., (2004) among others have had a consensus in their findings which have proposed that when women are juxtaposed with men, women are more bound to use verbal interactions for social reasons, for instance, in aspects like cooking, dresses, home and children and in this case, verbal communication are perceived as serving as an end in themselves. On the other hand, men tend to use language in their communications for instrumental reasons in the convergence of information related to issues like sports. Nonetheless, there is another school of thought with major proponents like Bradley (1981) and Weatherall (2002) which has argued against any intrinsic and meaningful differences between the utility of language between both genders. All these discourses point to the sensitive nature in regard to the relationship between language and power with gender and sexuality. Against this background, this paper is a profound effort to give an objective analysis of context of the interrelation between these concepts. Thus, this analysis will focus on the utility of language in regard to gender relations and political power, medical power and media power among other field. However, it is imperative to first differentiate the definitions of gender and sexuality which have been subjected to synonymous utility in different areas. Definition of terms According to the definitions proposed by the American Psychological Association (2011), sexuality which is related to sex refers to the biological status of an individual which culminates to the categorization of male, female or intersex. Thus, this is embedded on the typical features which distinguish between female and male, for instance, internal reproductive organs and external genitalia. On the other hand, gender refers to the behaviors, attitude and feelings which are given cultural associations in regard to one’s biological sex. Thus, whereas sexuality is constant, gender is related to dynamic concepts like gender roles and it is mostly acquired through socialization and cultural orientations (American Psychological Association, 2011). The subsequent section will explore how gender and sexuality relations are expressed in regard to language and power in different realms. Gender, sexuality and politics Aspects of language use of in the political spectrum has for a long time been tied to gender and sexuality. It is imperative to note that in the past centuries dating as far back as the Greek city state, the participation of women in the political realms was limited and politics was often perceived as a male field. In this regard, institutional structures which were put in place both at the societal and state levels inhibited the entry of women in the political circles. Women and girls were excluded from the political fronts and were denied access to skills like oratory which are fundamental in public speaking which characterized the political undertakings of the time. In addition, when young girls talked using a ‘rough tone’ which was considered as a boy’s behavior, she was scolded and reprimanded and in this way, the society which was in form of her parents and friends played the role of keeping her in line. According to Lakoff (1973), this socialization process which was considered as harmless was extremely detrimental in regard to the linguistic uses by the girl child. It thus made her acquire a tailored model of speech which was later put into utility as an excuse of putting her in a demeaning position in the politics and refuse to take her seriously in the political platform. However, different waves of feminism has played an integral role in the efforts to increasingly entrench women into the politics against the historical prejudices that marginalized women out of the political field based on their language use. Perhaps the most influential movements in this respect have been the ‘modern’ and the ‘post-modern’ feminism approaches. Nonetheless, despite the antagonism that has been evident in the utility of these two concepts in regard to women political empowerment, their basic utility in this paper relates to how the latter paradigm has succeeded the other in chronological time. Cameron (2005) determined that when research on feminism language and gender instigated in the 1970s, the core agenda in this enquiry related to how language played an integral role in the marginalization of women from the political realms and the wider public spheres. In this regard, this research primarily focused on how dominance was being exerted on women aimed at silencing them in the public spheres through the denial of speech styles, literacies and languages that were fundamental in the entry into the political spectrum as mentioned above. Thus, this meant that women were historically subjected to stereotypes and prejudices in relation to their manner of speech and writing. The entrenchment of women in the political spheres as a result of these movements can also be perceived in the context of the entry of gender issues in politics oriented academic disciplines like political science in the recent decades. This fact is supported by Childs and Krook (2006) who cited that the state of gender and politics research has become more manifest in the recent past which has not only increase the number of scholars who are primarily engaged in the studies of gender and politics but also the presence of these studies has heightened in the mainstream political science. Majority of these scholars are women who have embraced the chance of acquiring skills and knowledge on political discourse and the language used in the political spheres at the same level with their male counterparts. Consequently, scholars in gender and politics who are mostly women have increasingly become visible in political professions in the public sphere both at the senior as well as junior levels (Childs & Krook, 2006). This can be attributed to their access and opportunity to learn political language which is key in impacting on their role in the political spheres and now they can attain the same level of political competence in similar level with men. Thus, through extensive advocacy by the post feminism proponents, women have been empowered to increasingly engage in politics both in academia and in practice. In this regard, they have been able to produce profound political writings as a result of the political knowledge that they acquire in these politics related disciplines using the most robust political language. In addition, they have expressed more interest in the actual political participation and occupied political positions in diverse states as mentioned above. The use of political language was thus slowly entrenched among women aspiring to get into the political scene, which is best epitomized by Margaret Thatcher who was the longest serving UK prime minister in the 20th century (1979-1990). Thatcher has been widely acclaimed as portraying masculine tendencies in her language which was often characterized by arrogance (mostly in the mid-1980s) and was also domineering. Nonetheless, she also paid more attention to her feminine side of mannerism and used her female charm when necessary (Nunn, 2002). These tendencies of robust use of political language among women have also been attributed to the first ever prime minister in the world, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, who served as the prime minister of Ceylon and Sri Lanka for three times as well as being a long-time leader of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party. In addition, the impact of this paradigm shift is evident in the Greek society whereby the new generation of younger women recent decades have widely diffused the tenets of feminism ideas in the political spectrum, exhibiting absolute rejection of the legitimacy historically placed upon social inferiority. They have thus portrayed it as an issue that must be solved or in another perspective, ‘gender is no longer an issue’. Thus, despite the minimal percentage of women in the parliament of Greece, there has been a major improvement in the political participation of women as well as their social welfare in the society after two and a half decades of state feminism (Maloutas, 2006). These trends of feminism which have influenced the political participation and power among women have not only been confined among the Western democracies but have also been widespread in other regions of the world among emerging democracies, for instance, Salif Johnson who is the 24th and current president of Liberia. Moreover, Htun and Piscopo (2010) determined that the participation of women in the political spheres in Latin America and the Caribbean has gained steady growth in the last decade. This has been evidenced by their share in the parliamentary seats which has elevated from a low of 13% in 2000 to 21% in 2010. Gender, sexuality and medical power Just like politics, the medical field has been dominated by men for a long time with women being limited to subordinate roles in the medical professions, for instance, nurses. This is epitomized in South Africa whereby Crawford (1999) determined that the nurses in the hospitals of this country are predominantly women from the African descent while the doctors are predominantly male from European and Indian backgrounds. This historical subordination of women in the medical realms influenced the level of power that women had in the medical field whereby they had limited opinion in the treatment of patients and their role was limited in taking care of these patients once the doctor (often male) had made his prescription. In addition, women had little input in the development of the language used in this field which was predominantly under the male domain. Nonetheless, Albanesi and Olivetti (2009) noted that the increased entry of women who are married into the labour force can be perceived as one of the most notable in the 20th century and resulted in revolutionary transformations in regard to their economic roles. The following figure depicts the increased entry of women in the labor force in relation to their age and marital status. Figure 1.0: Female Labor Force Participation by Age and Marital Status Source: Albanesi and Olivetti (2009). The above figure shows a drastic increase of the women in the labor force which is also represented in the medical field. Women have eventually gained increased entry into the medical field, capturing positions which are endowed with power and influence in medicine which has increased their influence in this particular field. This fact is supported by Elston (2009) who determined that the medical profession is going through some profound transformations which are primarily characterized by the increasing proportion of women doctors, a field which was one dominated by males. This has seen increased influence of these women in the medical field, in influencing policies at the national and international level as well as spearheading interventions which have had enormous impacts on the healthcare of various countries. It is imperative to note that despite the central role of technological and scientific advances which have seen the reduced prevalence of some diseases and minimization of mortality, the entry of women into the medical field has had a positive impact in in respect to both of the aspects mentioned above. This is whereby the increased interest and actions of women doctors and researchers who have entered the medical field at a high level of command have been integral in solving some of the most severe challenges related to maternal health which has had an overall impact of reducing both maternal and infant mortality rates. Thus, women in the medical field have been core instituting interventions which have resulted in the standardization of the obstetric practices and elevating the availability of pre-natal care, minimization of occurrences of obstructed labor and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy which have been credited for diverse forms of post-partum disability (Albanesi &Olivetti, 2009). These advancements have posed a positive impact in the advancement of maternal health, and the subsequent decline of maternal mortality which has seen increased differentiation of the female-male life expectancy (Albanesi & Olivetti, 2009). On the other hand, the trend of increased women in the medical field has seen their greater involvement in researches in different medical field which has been core in solving some major challenges in medicine. Thus, it is prudent to note that the increased involvement of women in the medical field in the recent decades has been integral in elevating their power in this field and their contribution in the medical advancements. In addition, they have been continuously involved in the development of the language which is used in this field over the years which has placed them not like subordinate professions but as fundamental cogs in the wider medical realm in different countries. Nonetheless, it is important to note that this professional paradigm shift has not only been limited to women. Men on the other hand have been increasingly entered into medical professions which had predominantly been dominated by women, for instance, nursing and mid-wifely. This is revealed by Pilkenton et. al (2008) who determined that it has been publicly acclaimed that nursing is a profession that is dominated by women and specifically midwifery, might be the most exclusive and disproportionately female specialty reserved for women in this field. Nonetheless, men have been increasingly been getting into this field, bringing with them positive attributes to the profession. Thus, just like the increased number of women getting into the medical profession impact on their power and the language used therein, men entering into the nursing and midwifery professions have also had similar effects which have resulted to the widespread recognition of their input in these fields. Gender, sexuality and the media Gender and sexuality relations have also been apparent in the media. In the past, very few women were involved in the delivery of media contents both in the print and in the electronic media. In fact, majority of the women in media houses were restricted to minor roles which limited their power and their influence on the language that would be used to address women issues in the society. As a result, the media which was male dominated was prone to delivering news which were biased against women, their roles in the society and their contribution to the socio-economic as well as the political wellbeing of the society. Consequently, the issues of women were portrayed in a negative perspective due to the limited input of female views in these issues as well as minimal influence of the women in the decision making process of what will be presented in the media in regard to female issues in the society. This fact is supported by (Solomon, 2006) who determined that the participation of the women in the decision making processes in the media has been notoriously low in the past resulting to negative portrayal of women issues in the media. Nonetheless, recent times have seen increased input of women in the media in different roles which has been prompted by the spread of the feminism spirit in this area. Solomon (2006) determined that according to different feminists like Lisbert Van Zooner, Linda Steiner, Deborah Chambers and Karen Ross among others made a great impact in changing this trend through arguing that increased numbers of women working in the media would have a positive impact in visualization in the sense that they will be playing more profound roles, conducting interviews and programming, expressing their opinions on issues confronting different societies among other fundamental roles-with a touch of the women’s perspective. In addition, they argued that when women get into positions of power and authority in the media as well as in other realms which make up the societal fabric, there will be a big chance for the women issues to gain entry into the media content. This is bound to molding the society towards having a positive image on the women as they make profound efforts in contributing their knowledge, expressing their positive opinions and being central in activities being undertaken by the media houses aimed at improving the society (Solomon, 2006). In addition, these feminist theorists were of the view that the increased entrenchment of women in the media would have an overall impact on enhancing the coverage as well influencing the manner in which women are portrayed in the media, both at the national and international level (Solomon, 2006). Perhaps the propositions by this group of theorists is founded on the fact that apart from the rudimentary principle of enhancing gender equality in the media, women are greatly needed in the newsroom in order to play a key role in the coverage of the hidden half of humanity. This is based on the fact that women are endowed with the capacity of dealing with some of the issues which men can fail to have access to (Reporters Without Borders, 2011). This has seen the increased entry of women in the media which has achieved most of the impacts outlined by the feminist theorist previously mentioned. This fact is evidenced in the Canada Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) whereby Spears (2010) determined that according to CBC’s ‘guideline on the sex role portrayal’, there is an underpinned necessity for a realistic balance in terms of the men and women in programming. As a result, this resulted to the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunication Commission (CRTC) citing the 40:60 gender ratio (female: male) as its rudimentary standard. According to the present data, 59% of the news anchor/program hosts in CBC are female and among the reporter, 46% are female (Spears, 2010). This portrays the increased entry of women in the media houses who has been central in elevating their participation in the issues of the day. In addition, the role of women in the managerial roles of the media has also risen in the recent times. Perhaps this is best portrayed by Gail Evans who is the former executive vice president of the CNN newsgroup. Her main mandates entailed talent development and overseeing network’s programs at the domestic level among others. Her programs have received global acclamation and received enormous awards like a commendation award from American Women in radio and Television as well as the Breakthrough Award for the Women Men and Media, not forgetting being a nominee in different Emmy nominations. Apart from the electronic media, the number of women in the print media has also increased tremendously where they have been extensively involved in writing articles of societal importance, reporting on various occurrences in different regions as well as in the distribution of the print media materials. In addition, women have also played a central role in editing important columns in the print media which address diverse issues ranging from health, fashion, nutrition and family issues among others. Moreover, women have also been extensively evident in the coverage of majority of the issues like politics and medical issues which were initially a preserve of men based on the increased entry of women in these fields as previously analyzed. Thus, the trends of increasing the numbers of women in the media presentations which have experienced growth in the recent decades are fundamental in the ensuring that the women issues being portrayed in the media in a positive point of view. This has been chief in not only addressing the challenges confronting women from an objective perspective but also in demystifying diverse issues which are faced by women at the international spectrum. This has had the cumulative effect of spearheading the socio-economic and political empowerment of women in various parts of the globe in these areas. Perhaps another worthwhile development in the increased participation of the women in the media has been the advance of the social media which has given women an ideal platform of addressing different issues in the society. Gelber (2011) cited that surveys have revealed that women have outnumbered men in the social network sites like Facebook, Twitter and MySpace among others. In addition, researches in academia have shown that social media have been a more preferred style of communication among women when juxtaposed with men. Thus, women have emerged to be most creative and visible users of the social media in the political realms. This heightened utility of the social media among women can be perceived as an ideal platform of influencing the role of women in different field like politics, law, medicine and religion among other realms. This has increased their power in the social media platform, not forgetting their influence on the language which is used in these social networks. Recommendations and conclusion Despite the positive strides that women have made in the political, media and medical realms analyzed in the preceding sections which has had an impact on their power as well as the language used in these fields, it is recommended that more efforts ought to be made to increase their participation in these fields among others to reflect their percentage in the national and international population. In conclusion, the preceding discourse has evidenced the fact that there is an inherent difference between gender and sexuality. In addition, the representation of gender and sexuality in fields like medicine, politics and media has been explored which has revealed increased participation of women in these fields. This has been attributed to different factors but central to them is the wind of feminism which was key in empowering women to participate in various realms in the society. Lastly, it has been recommended that more efforts ought to be made to increase the participation of women in these fields among others to reflect their percentage in the national and international population. References Albanesi, S. &Olivetti, C. (2009). Gender Roles and Medical Progress. Retrieved November 15th 2012 from http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/economists/albanesi/gender_roles_medical_progress.pdf American Psychological Association (2011). Definition of Terms: Sex, Gender, Gender Identity, Sexual Orientation. Retrieved November 15th 2012 from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/sexuality-definitions.pdf Bradley, P. H. 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