Hegemonic and Subordinate Masculinity in the Middle Eastern Societies - Essay Example

Studies on Masculinity in the Middle East: What is to be Gained? The study of masculinity in Middle Eastern societies reveals that notions of hegemonic and subordinate masculinities are likely to come into conflict in the coming days. Does this mean that newer forms of masculinity will be challenged and ultimately suppressed? The sections below discusses three articles to determine whether masculinity in the Middle East is experiencing a crisis for its survival and expression as capitalism and western liberal values steadily make inroads into Middle Eastern societies. Similarities in the Literature The Impact on Gender Relations All the three articles state that conceptions of masculinity in the Middle East are dependent upon gender relations and also affect them in turn. This depends on the culture and social norms of Middle Eastern societies. Peteet (2002)1 describes how the notions of honour and responsibilities towards women shape masculinity in Palestinian society. An individual is said to have attained manhood when he is able to defend the honour of the womenfolk of his family. Similarly, Rohde (1990)2 explains how in Ba’thist Iraq, concepts of masculinity were shaped by the changing roles of women from working women to military roles. Haugbolle (2012)3 also recognizes that masculinity in Lebanese society is shaped by the ability of men to protect the honour of the women and the nation. The Impact of War and Conflict A second common thread in the articles is the influence of war and conflict on masculinity and its development. In Peetet (2002)4, violence against young Palestinian boys by the Israeli soldiers is perceived as a rite of passage in the transition to adulthood. Conflict and physical torture then becomes a certificate of attaining manhood and leads to respect and authority in society. Rohde (1990)5 recounts how during the rise of militarism in Iraq, masculinity was associated with traits of warriors while women were rarely depicted engaging in military action despite having a presence on the field. Haugbolle (2012)6 also describes how Lebanese civil war experience defined the transition from boyhood to manhood for a generation by exposing them to physical aggression, weapons, drugs and women. These examples show how war and conflict is seen to provide a challenge to channel the aggression and adventure-seeking tendencies of young boys. The Impact of Neo-Liberal Economic Policies The three articles also elaborate on the impact of neo-liberal economic factors on shaping the ideas of masculinity in the Middle East. Haugbolle (2012) describes how the neo-liberal economic policies pursued by Rafik Hariri after the Lebanese civil war served to instill a perspective that equated chaos and violence with poverty. Similarly, as Rohde (1990)7 identifies, the changing notions of masculinity and feminity in Iraq were partly a result of the regime’s desire to increase the proportion of women in the workforce. It can also be argued that in Peteet’s (2002)8 analysis of violence against Palestinian young men, it is the interest of Israeli government to continue with the colonization and oppression to pursue neo-liberal policies. Differences in the Literature Differences in Hegemonic and Subordinate Masculinities A major difference in the articles is the emergence of hegemonic masculinity in Palestine and Iraq while a subordinate masculinity emerges in Lebanon. Peteet (2002)9 describes how after the experience of violence, torture and imprisonment influences Palestinian men return home to demonstrate greater authority over family members and others in the community. While Rohde (1990)10 describes similar effects in the artistic depiction of masculinity and feminity in war drawings in Iraq, Haugbolle (2012)11 presents a completely opposite picture among the former militia men of Lebanon. In response to the need to rationalize the civil war events, former militia men are depicted in the arts as remorseful men who were dragged into the chaos unwittingly. Differences in Moral Effects A second difference lies in the effect of social morals on concepts of masculinity in the Middle East. Haugbolle (2012)12 shows how the former militia men of Lebanon may be seeking redemption because of having maintained some moral stance while their colleagues and superiors were committing atrocities. On the other hand, Peetet (2002) shows how moral pressure is used by Palestinian women to shame Israeli soldiers from inflicting violence on young boys and children. On the one hand, the Lebanese militia men are shown as victims but on the other hand, the Israeli soldiers are perceived as oppressors. In Iraq, Rohde (1990)13 shows how nationalism and patriotism dominated the moral standards of masculinity during war. Discussion and Critique I think the more important point of difference is that of difference in hegemonic and subordinate masculinity in the Middle Eastern societies. Due to assumptions of homogenized masculinity in the region, the study of masculinity has gained little attention. However, the experience of war and conflict has promoted the exploration of new ideals of masculinity. A sign of the rise of subordinate and marginal masculinity can be found in Aghacy (2004)14 who notes that masculinity in Lebanon is finding expression through nurturing, caring and performing domestic roles. Following this trend, one can expect a revision in gender roles in Middle Eastern society that will ultimately encourage rationalism and practicality as opposed to conventional attitudes towards masculinity. Second is the voice that proponents of homosexuality have found as a result of capitalism and consumer freedom in the Middle East. This clearly goes against the social and religious traditions of the Middle East and is likely to create a fiercer antagonistic environment than changing gender roles. As a start, the old order prescribing essentialist notions of masculinity and feminity has begun to assert itself more vigorously in Turkey where the Turkish Armed Forces decided in November last year to include homosexuality as a major offence for its military staff, thus trying to punish expressions of subordinate masculinity or homosexuality15. Continued research on marginalized masculinities is needed to dispel the notion of a homogenized masculinity in the region. Political and economic developments are likely to promote an understanding of various types of masculinity and homosexuality in the region aimed toward a better understanding of gender in Middle Eastern societies. Bibliography Aghacy, S. Lebanese Masculinities. Al-Raida, Winter/Spring 2004, 21(104-104), pp. 2-3. Daily News. Turkish Military to Expel Gays. 27 November 2012. Haugbolle, S., 2012. The (Little) Militia Man: Memory and Militarized Masculinity in Lebanon. Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, Winter 2012, 8(1), pp.115-139. Peteet, J., 2002. Male Gender and Rituals of Resistance in the Palestinian Intifada: A Cultural Politics of Violence. In Adams, R. and Savran, D. eds., 2002. The Masculinity Studies Reader. Blackwell Publishers. Rohde, A., 1990. Opportunities for Masculinity and Love: Cultural Production in Ba’thist Iraq during the 1980s. In Ouzgane, L. ed., 1990. Islamic Masculinities. London: Zed Books. Read More