Debate on Sexual Inequality - Literature review Example

Summary The first article to be reviewed for the purpose of this paper is by Janet S. Chafetz d, ‘Feminist Theory and Sociology: Underutilized Contributions for Mainstream Theory’. This article critically looks at varied feminist theories that have evolved in the last two decades within sociology. The author agrees that sociology as a discipline has made many inroads in incorporating feminist apprehensions and views into its academic discourse however, it still has much to gain from their insights. Focusing only on theories written after the return of feminist activism and realization in the 1960s, it expresses how these theories originate from, appraise and modify academic traditions to reflect centrality of gender within different socio-cultural frameworks. Thus, helping us understand the wide display of theoretical ideas available for our use and their place in conventional sociological theories. The author concludes by introducing the reader to an up-and-coming topic, “the intersection of race, class and gender”. The author opinions that though very weak theoretical efforts have been taken to produce the topic, it could transform sociological comprehension of social stratification by the interesting argument it puts forward, that, “the three forms of oppression are not separate and additive, but interactive and multiplicative in their effects”. The next summary is of the film, Two Spirits, directed by Lydia Nibley and produced and written by Russell Martin and Lydia Nibley. It traces the real life story of Fred Martinez, a Navajo teen, whose life came to an abrupt halt at 16 years, when he was brutally murdered by another young man named Murphy. The film interestingly follows a historical timeline as it explores Fred’s carefree and brave life as a nádleehí (a male-bodied individual with a female personality) and at the same time investigates traditions that were once extensively prevalent among the indigenous people of North America. The film recounts how Native Americans had once held feminine males, intersex people, masculine females and asexual people with very high regard, defining them in the English-man’s language as “two-spirit” people. Holding to their age-old beliefs they saw in these people an embodiment of two spirits, the male and the female, hence they were considered privileged and spiritually gifted. With the looming threat of an entire tradition being wiped out from among the natives, the film slowly returns to the brutal crime that took place on 16th June, 2001 in Cortez. It explores the murder site where Murphy, viciously bludgeoned Fred to death with a rock, just for being different and later bragged about it to his friends saying he, “bug-smashed a fag”. Following narratives by Paula Mitchell, Fred’s mother, Richard La Fortune, activist of the Yupik tribe, and Cathy Renna, a leader in the LGBT community, the viewer gets a very clear picture of the vile nature of the hate crime that was meted out to young Fred. This film is created so that people can understand, accept and be compassionate about issues of gender diversity and at the same time recognize and celebrate it, in view with the wiser, traditional American cultures. The director’s attempt through this film seems to be – ‘to transform through sharing’. The last article for review is the introduction chapter of the book titled, ‘The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality’ written by Sandra Lipsitz Bem. This chapter reviews the historical transformation of America’s social consciousness with regard to philosophy and treatment of women. It traces historical beliefs regarding women in religious light and how it later took biological leanings. It depicts how these beliefs were further challenged by the women’s rights movement in the mid-nineteenth century and later by feminist advocacy in the early 1960s. However, the author believes that even within these changing times there exist “lenses of gender” which seek to infuse male power into social institutions and social reality, methodically and invisibly. Identifying the three lenses of gender as being – androcentrism, gender polarization and biological essentialism, the author considers them to be ways by which culture is reproducing male power. If a path can be devised to stop these discourses and enculturation, the author trusts that the feminist agenda in America can finally be achieved. In conclusion, the author critically analyzing the chapter admits that the term ‘male power’ cannot be generalized as it pertains specifically to power held by, “rich, white, heterosexual men”, and leaves out of its domain, “poor people, people of color and sexual minorities”. Finally, the chapter has been written within the context of USA, drawing from its history and culture and hence the universality of this paper is limited. Why do men hold the most powerful economic and political positions across the globe? Functionalist theorists believe that society is made up of interdependent parts, each of which plays their part in maintaining the smooth functioning of society. Their inherent belief in stability and social control is further enhanced by the common values and belief systems that the people share. This conviction in the idea of social equilibrium is asserted by values regarding family, marriage and gender roles. If, functionalists were to explain gender imbalances in powerful economic and political positions across the globe, they would state that the male-figure in the family has the role of maintaining its material uprightness, which is done by providing the family members with food and shelter and the female-figure is expected to offer emotional support and pursue nurturing traits, it is only when these two parts follow these balanced and separate roles that disruption in society can be curtailed. More men in the world hold powerful economic and political positions according to functional theorists because they have an influential role to play in the world, unless this is followed, the entire family system, currently prevalent in society will collapse and lead to chaos. They profess the ideology of leaving pecuniary activities to the male head and the household activities to the female subordinate. The conflict theorists are often viewed as being complete opposite to functional theorists because of their view that consensus is only achieved in society through exercise of power and control. They view patriarchal systems as institutionalized mechanisms which promote power imbalances and inequality. Through patriarchy centered concentration of wealth and endogamous marriages, conflict theorists state that dominance of men and subservience of women is ensured. To explain gender imbalances in powerful economic and political positions across the globe, these theorists would state that if women gained powerful economic and political positions, it would ensure that their economic powers would also amplify thereby increasing their control inside the home and ensuring equality. However, since this is undesirable, women are engaged in unpaid domestic chores with no power to pay for substitutes or insist on sharing of burden. Symbolic interactionists assert that the concept of gender does not exist independently but emerges from a socially constructed course. It is derived from the interaction with others and is best understood as the enactment of a scene operating from a script. Hence, if symbolic interactionists were to explain gender imbalances in powerful economic and political positions across the globe, they would state that the gender roles are prearranged to follow a set script. The labels each gender has assigned to the other, colored by a gendered subculture, establish a perception of difference. Once this is done, it becomes easier for men to justify inequality in economic and political positions as being privileged, since they have more power. The last point of view to be discussed in this paper is that of the feminists, who affirm that women should be given the opportunity to exert control over their own destinies. They believe that social inequalities are maintained by principles recognized by both the oppressor and the oppressed and they can be challenged only when the oppressed group focuses on their ability to gather resources from a variety of sources. To explain gender imbalances in powerful economic and political positions across the globe, feminist theorists state that one needs to analyze not just the gendered dimensions but also the class and race dimensions. Majority of women across the globe do not suffer from just a single oppression but from multiple oppressions, like for example, being a African-American single mother or a Dalit girl which prevent them from achieving high economic and political positions. When women try to apply for high-paying economic positions, it is not just patriarchal leanings that come into play but racial and class leanings as well. What social policies would theorists from functionalist, conflict theorist, symbolic interactionist and feminist groups offer as mechanisms to make this situation more gender equitable? Functional theorists would promote social policies on education, social security and healthcare supported by the welfare state as it would ease the burden on the family roles. In such a household then, women will be able to reprise their role merely as nurturers and extend it to career achiever, also with growing freedom for the male from his needs providing role, some of the domestic chores could be divided to ensure a more gender equitable situation. Feminists would encourage social policies discouraging inequalities based on gender, race and class. Similarly policies, supporting financial benefits for single mothers, desisting domestic violence and promoting maternity benefits would be highly regarded in the bid to promote gender equality. References Bem, Sandra Lipsitz. "Introduction." Bem, Sandra Lipsitz. The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality. Binghamton, NY: Yale University Press, 1994. 256. Chafetz, Janet Saltzman. "Feminist Theory and Sociology: Underutilized Contributions for Mainstream Theory." Annual Review of Sociology 23 (1997): 97-120. Two Spirits. By Russell Martin and Lydia Nibley. Dir. Lydia Nibley. Perf. Craig Benally. Prods. Russell Martin and Lydia Nibley. 2009. Read More